There are several threats facing olive groves in Almeria, Spain, including desertification, the loss of soil organic matter and soil erosion. It was hypothesised that soil improving practices such as cover cropping and pruning residues alongside regulated deficit irrigation may increase soil organic matter and reduce erosion. An experiment was conducted on an organic olive orchard with with 3 blocks, containing 3 plots each, two for the SICS treatments and one for the control treatment. Treatments were treated with either standard continuous irrigation (control) or regulated deficit irrigation and then with minimum tillage, cover crops and pruning residues. Several parameters were measured, including stem water potential, flowering, fruit set, yield, fatty content, new shoots growths. Although no water savings were observed, there was an improved distribution of water resources over the course of the year which allowed an increase in fruit quality. The differences among soil management

treatments were small and non-significant. There was a trade-off between the increase and decrease of some costs which meant no significant impacts were observed. As a result of this experiment, the field owner has decided to switch from Continuous Deficit Irrigation to Regulated Deficit Irrigation and use temporary cover crops.

For more information: https://soilcare-project.eu/study-sites2/almeria-spain

A factsheet in Spanish is available here https://tinyurl.com/czuhxaj9

Economic pressures have led to an increase in the use of large farm machinery, often under unfavourable conditions. In Norway, this problem is amplified by climate change and increases in precipitation during the growing season and at harvest. A study was undertaken to investigate the possible loosening effect of compacted silt soil by growing deep rooting plants (biological soil loosening, biodrilling) Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and “rybs” (Brassica rapa ssp. Oleifera) in a crop rotation with barley. The yields for all three seasons showed a variation between years but no significant effect of treatments on yields. Low yields were mostly due to unusual, poor weather conditions during the whole research period.

Alfalfa had a positive effect on bulk density, especially on the compacted plot, where the bulk density improved significantly compared to compacted state. Alfalfa established an impressive root system and seems to be well-suited to loosening up soil compaction. However, Alfalfa may be costly to produce for the farmer. Although the oil seed variety grown had been expected to be well-adapted to the short growing season in Norway, the oilseed established poorly.

For more information see https://soilcare-project.eu/study-sites2/akershus-norway

A fact sheet in Norwegian is available here https://tinyurl.com/4u47hty4

Conventional tillage has been shown to result in soil compaction and erosion and organic carbon losses. A long-term experiment was established in 1972 to explore whether minimum tillage may alleviate the aforementioned soil threats in Keszthaly, Hungary. There are a total of four treatments at this site: 1) conventional with no Nitrogen (N) fertilisation; 2) conventional with 160-180kg/ha of N fertilisation; 3) minimum tillage with no N fertilisation, and 4) minimum tillage with 160-180kg/ha of N fertilisation. Cereal yields were significantly lower under minimum tillage with no N fertilisers applied. On average, across the entire study period, crop yields were highest under minimum tillage with N fertiliser use. In addition, minimum tillage led to increases in soil organic carbon. Water aggregate stability also significantly increased under minimum tillage, particularly where no N fertilisers were applied. Economically, as minimum tillage led to similar wheat yields and higher maize yields when compared against conventional tillage, this appears to be a viable soil-improving cropping system. In conclusion, minimum tillage results in several benefits for soil health which are likely to outweigh the potential challenges such as increased risk of weed burdens and the resulting need to apply agrichemicals.

For more information see: https://soilcare-project.eu/study-sites2/keszthely-hungary

A fact sheet in Hungarian is available here https://tinyurl.com/wfjfdmpa

Crop production in Flanders, Belgium is generally highly intensive. As a result, the soils are facing increased erosion and compaction levels alongside high phosphorus content. An experiment was conducted to explore whether using different cultivation practices would improve soil quality. The treatments included: conventional ploughing, non-inversion tillage, strip tilling into dead grass or cover crops, strip tilling into living grass cover, and undersowing with grass simultaneously or after maize sowing. Each experiment was repeated four times. It was found that few soil parameters were significantly affected by the cultivation practice used. However, productivity was affected by certain treatments. Crop establishment was significantly lower under the strip till under living grass treatment due to a wireworm infestation, whilst crop yields were significantly lower and more irregular under the strip till treatments. In addition, strip tillage faced several barriers, including the practicality of implementing this practice, and its potential ecological impact (due to the increased need to control pests, e.g., wireworm). Grass undersowing in maize, however, appeared to offer an effective practice for reducing soil erosion, leaching, and increasing soil organic carbon levels, though the results varied depending on the weather conditions. Knowledge and expertise are also needed to ensure undersowing takes place at the right time.

For more information see: https://soilcare-project.eu/study-sites2/flanders-belgium

A fact is available in Dutch here:https://tinyurl.com/u7kkmm6z

Inappropriate tillage practices have led to soil compaction, whilst decreases in the applications of organic fertilisers have led to soil organic carbon reductions in recent years within the Prague-Ruzyne region of the Czech Republic. An experiment was conducted within an arable rotation to compare different tillage and fertilisation practices on soil properties and crop productivity. The tillage treatments used included mouldboard ploughing up to 22cm, chisel ploughing up to 10cm, with a minimum of 30% of crop residues left on the field, and no tillage, with all residues remaining on the field. For each of these tillage treatments, 5 different fertilisation techniques were used (resulting in a total of 20 treatments): control (no fertiliser), calcareous ammonium nitrate, urea, urea with urease inhibitor, and calcareous ammonium nitrate and urea ammonium nitrate. It was found that zero tillage was not appropriate for the heavy clay soils present at the study site. It was, however, the most effective for storing carbon in the soil. Meanwhile, minimum tillage, whilst less effective for storing soil organic carbon, did not require investment costs and was better suits to drier areas where cereals are cultivated. It was, therefore, recommended that minimum tillage is adopted here as it increases soil organic carbon levels, reduces water and wind erosion, and results in greater stability in crop yields.

For more information see: https://soilcare-project.eu/study-sites2/prague-ruzyne-czech-republic

Soil organic carbon declines can result in diminishing crop yields. An experiment was conducted in Keszthaly, Western Hungary to determine whether the application of organic fertilisers as opposed to mineral fertilisers may increase soil organic carbon content and grain yields. The 6 treatments included: 1) no fertilisers applied; 2) farmyard manure applied; 3) green manure applied; 4) nitrogen fertiliser applied, 5) nitrogen fertiliser and farmyard manure applied; and 6) nitrogen fertiliser and green manure applied. It was found that both farmyard and green manure applications had a positive impact on several soil properties and on crop yields. The addition of organic manures reduced the risk of soil compaction and weed infestation. In addition, the plots treated with organic fertilisers became more economically sustainable, particularly where straw was left on the field. Whilst green manure led to the biggest economic benefits, applying farmyard manure increased soil organic matter content the most, indicating that in the long term this may be the most sustainable soil-improving cropping system. However, some stakeholders were concerned about their ability to obtain farmyard manure, thus alternative ways of procuring manures need to be considered.

For more information see: https://soilcare-project.eu/study-sites2/keszthely-hungary

The fact sheet in Hungarian is available here https://tinyurl.com/35v2pbx6

Soils across much of Switzerland and Europe are facing several soil threats due to intensive agriculture, including compaction, erosion, declining soil organic matter content and biodiversity, and soil contamination. This experiment compared fields where glyphosate was applied to destroy green manure against those where green manure was left on the field, thus resulting in covered soils between crops. The control treatment involved conventional tillage, use of green manure and glyphosate, whilst the experimental treatment involved intercropping with green manure, minimum tillage, and reduced pesticide use (with no Glyphosate applications). It was found that the use of minimum tillage and green manures without Glyphosate was just as effective at controlling weeds as Glyphosate use. In addition, crop yields did not differ between plots, indicating that Glyphosate applications may not be needed to maximise yields. In addition, mineral nitrogen levels were slightly higher under the experimental plots, suggesting that leaving green manures on the field may increase nitrogen availability. This indicates that under the right soil types, Glyphosate use could be reduced or withdrawn where minimum tillage and green manures are used. Two key challenges remain to ensure farmers adopt these pracitces: 1) raising awareness about the impacts of pesticide use on human and environmental health and 2) ensuring farmers are financially supported during this transition away from Glyphosate reliance.

For more information see: https://soilcare-project.eu/study-sites2/frauenfeld-switzerland

A fact sheet in German is available here https://tinyurl.com/yyk4wvpa

Intensive crop production with high inputs and yields can result in low soil organic matter content, soil erosion, compaction, and high phosphorus concentrations. An experiment was conducted in Flanders, Belgium, to determine whether the use of various organic soil amendments could alleviate any of the aforementioned soil threats. There were 5 treatments, each of which were compared against control strips without fertilisation or where only mineral fertilisers were applied. The treatments included mineral fertilisers, compost, wood chips, solid pig manure, and solid pig manure in combination with lava grit. Several soil health parameters were measured, including soil organic carbon, infiltration rate, bulk density, mineral nitrogen (0-90cm) and crop establishment and yields. No significant increased in soil organic carbon content were identified during the project. The experiment was, however, only conducted for two years, and RothC simulations indicated that in the long-term, the amendments would have led to significant increases in soil organic carbon. In addition, significant increases in water infiltration rate were found during the experiment under the plots where organic amendments were applied. These amendments had no negative effect on crop development or yield, indicating that organic amendments including woodchips may be highly effective for improving soil health without having adverse economic impacts.

For more information see: https://soilcare-project.eu/study-sites2/flanders-belgium

A factsheet in Dutch is available here https://tinyurl.com/8dubeahc

Underfoot fertilisation after controlled uptake long-term ammonium nutrition (CULTAN) was hypothesised to improve Nitrogen supply to crops where specific machinery which applies fertiliser directly to roots is used. A study was understaken on a conventional farm in Switzerland to compare the CULTAN technique (consisting of 2 fertlisations) against organic fertilisation (pig manure and Lonza-Sol, 3 fertilisations). It was found that the CULTAN technique led to increased mineral nitrogen levels. This cannot, however, be generalised for all observation periods of fields but is indicative that CULTAN may offer a way of increasing mineral N. In addition, soil organic carbon levels increased slightly under the CULTAN treatment during some periods. The overall sustainability of the CULTAN treatment was, however, negative because of the increased production costs due to the need for specialised machinery. Further investigation is needed to determine whether CULTAN is viable for farmers on a long-term basis.

For more information see: https://soilcare-project.eu/study-sites2/frauenfeld-switzerland

A fact sheet in German in available here https://tinyurl.com/2xfm4xvz

Soil compaction is one of the main threats to soil health in Europe as it dramatically affects crop yields and soil health. This is a key challenge to soils in Skane, Sweden, where the subsoil (25-30cm depth) is naturally compacted. An experiment was conducted to investigate whether mechanical loosening of subsoil with and without the addition of organic matter (straw) would increase biological activity, thus resulting in improved soil structure. Achieving this would allow plants to grow deeper roots and uptake more water and nutrients, thus increasing crop yields. The experiment itself consisted of three randomised treatments: a control (conventional tillage), subsoiling, and subsoiling with the addition of straw. Each treatment was replicated 4 times. It was found that more roots were present under the subsoiled treatments, with increased maximum pentetration. The maximum rooting depth was 27cm for the control, 30cm under subsoiling, and 35cm under the subsoiling with the straw treatment. Yields were not affected by subsoiling and the treatment only appears to affect distinct subsoil rows, amounting to 38-45% of the subsoil. In conclusion, this short-term pilot study indicated that subsoiling with or without the addition of straw pellets have a positive effect on root growth. There is, therefore, a need for longer-term studies on other crop and soil types to examine the effects of repeated subsoil loosening over time.

For more information see: https://soilcare-project.eu/study-sites2/orup-sweden

Soil compaction can be caused by the use of heavy machinery on agricultural land. This experiment in the east of England explored whether different tillage systems and the addition of a mycorrhizal inocculant could alleviate or minimise the imapcts of soil compaction in a previously direct drilled system under clay soil. A plot trial was carried out between 2017-2019 on an area of arable land which had been deliberately compacted. Three experimental treatments alongside a control (direct drilling) were trialled. The treatments included: Traditional ploughing, low disturbance sub-soiling, and the addition of the mycorrhizal inocultant. It was found that direct drilling under clay soils which are already highly compacted results in a yield penalty. A visual evaluation of soil structure (VESS) test indicated that soil structure is the worst under ploughing; this suggests that whilst ploughing may lead to yield recovery in the short-term, this is unlikely to be a long-term solution for alleviating compaction. In addition, earthworm numbers were lower under the two cultivated treatments, which may have long-term implications for soil health. In conclusion, where soil compaction is high, using traditional methods such as ploughing may be necessary in the short term to alleviate compaction and increase crop yields.

https://soilcare-project.eu/study-sites2/loddington-united-kingdom

There are several threats to soil health in Almeria, Spain, including desertification, wind erosion, and soil organic matter decline. These are of concern for agriculture as these threats can damage fruit crops and affect growth. It was hypothesised that soil improving practices such as cover cropping and no tillage alongside regulated deficit irrigation may increase soil fertility and reduce the effects of wind erosion. An experiment was conducted on a high density commercial peach orchard with 6 treatments, each of which were replicated 3 times. Treatments were treated with either full irrigation (control), regulated deficit irrigation and then with no till, temporary weeds, or temporary cover crops. Several soil parameters were measured, including soil organic content, electric conductivity, crop yield, fruit size, and water savings. There were, however, no significant associations found between treatments and the aforementioned parameters. Despite this, there were some benefits; for example, the adoption of reduced deficit irrigation led to cost savings due to reduced water usage. As a result of this experiment, the landowner decided to continue using deficit irrigation strategies and has reduced their water usage by 25%. This has led to an improved reputation for the landowner, thus increasing their social capital. This may encourage more farmers to adopt this sustainable management practice in the future.

For more information see: https://soilcare-project.eu/study-sites2/almeria-spain

A fact sheet in Spanish is available here https://tinyurl.com/czuhxaj9

Soils under organic rice production in the Baixo Mondego valley of Portugal are facing three key challenges: Nitrogen (N) inbalance, soil organic matter depletion, and weed burdens. N is a difficult nutrient to manage under organic crop production. Whilst many organic N fertilisers exist, they are often costly for farmers. Manure can also be used to increase N levels, however, it is difficult to spread and challenging to identify when to apply it to align with crop timings. At one end of the scale, this can result in N-stressed crops. At the other end, excess applications can have adverse environmental impacts. Intensive agriculture, in addition, has led to reduced soil organic matter levels which inhibit crop production. Lastly, organic rice production is faced by high weed burdens. An experiment was conducted in Portugal to examine whether introducing perennial Lucerne into an organic rice rotation would resolve these three challenges. The soils under this rotation were compared against a control whereby monocultures of conventional rice were grown. It was found that diversifying the rotation to include perennial Lucerne led to increased soil organic matter content. In addition, introducing Lucerne did not lead to significant increases in weed burdens and left yields unaffacted. This also led to a reduced need to apply N fertilisers, thus lessening the risk of nutrient leaching and runoff. Lastly, economic benefits were found as a result of introducing a rotation to previously monocultured fields.

For more information see: https://soilcare-project.eu/study-sites2/caldeirao-portugal

A fact sheet in Portuguese is available here https://tinyurl.com/crrkfbh2

In Portugal, 56% of cereal yields consist of grain corn which is grown under intensive monocultured systems. This intensive system has led to soil organic matter loss, thus affecting productivity. In addition, the use of mineral fertilisers has led to an increased likelihood of excess runoff during the Winter. This experiment grew a winter cover crop to produce a green manure to mitigate these threats. In total, 6 species of leguminous cover crops (forage pea, crimson clover, yellow lupin, balansa clover, persian clover, and arrowleaf clover) were grown to determine whether they are suitable in this meditteranean region and able to provide soil health benefits. It was found that all 6 cover crops adpated well to the climatic conditions, yielding large amounts of dry biomass (8 ton/ha for some of the clover species grown). These cover crops were successful in providing green manure, thus resulting in a reduced need to apply N, P and K by 35%, 50% and 100% respectively. In addition, the cover crops were effective for controlling weeds during the second year of the study, thus may reduce reliance on pesticides. However, during the 3 years of this study, these cover crops were not found to increase SOM content, likely due to the rapid decomposition characteristics of the legumes. In conclusion, the introduction of leguminous species may provide several agro-ecological services in Meditteranean climate.

For more information see: https://soilcare-project.eu/study-sites2/caldeirao-portugal

A fact sheet in Portuguese is available here https://tinyurl.com/ykauhe3r

The intensive monocultures of irrigated corn grain grown in the Baixo Mondego valley of Portugal are not conduicive to improving soil health due to the use of mineral fertilisers which compensate for the nutrients removed during harvest. As a result, soils in this area are often poor and unstructured. This experiment explored the potential of urban sewage sludge as an alternative to mineral fertilisers. This approach is somewhat controversial and is not, therefore, a common technique at present. The study compared soil health under business as usual (mineral fertiliser application) and application of a sewage sludge amendment. It was found that the application of sewage sludge led to slightly higher soil organic matter levels, though this was not a significant effect. In addition, available P and exchangeable K was highest under the sewage sludge treatment, but again, not significantly so. Earthworm counts were also highest under sewage sludge treatment. These findings imply that sewage sludge may offer a suitable alternative to mineral fertiliser as it leads to some improvements to soil health without affecting crop yield. Further research is needed to explore perceptions of using sewage sludge on agricultural fields.

For more information see: https://soilcare-project.eu/study-sites2/caldeirao-portugal

A fact sheet in Portuguese is available here https://tinyurl.com/mks84rju

There are several threats to soil health in Szaniawy, Poland, including loss of soil organic matter, insufficient water holding capacity, low soil acidity, and poor soil structure. Many of these threats are seen in soils across Europe and beyond. This study explored the effects of several soil management practices on soil health and crop yiedl, including liming, manure, and cover crops. A randomised field experiment was conducted for three years consisting of five treatments with three replicates: 1) Control; 2) liming (CaCO3, 5-6 tonnes/ha); 3) Cover crops; 4) Manure applications (30 tonnes/ha); 5) Liming and cover crops and manure in combination. The crop rotation consisted of oat, wheat and triticale. It was found that different treatments had a significant effect on crop yield in moist and dry years. Irrespective of treatment, yields were 50% lower in dry years than they were in moist years. The most successful treatments were the use of manure and the combined treatment (treatment 5); these practices led to the highest yields and plant heights. In addition, all practices led to significant increased in dry gluten content in wheat kernels, with treatment 5 resulting in the greatest increase. Treatment 5 also led to the highest topsoil mineral Nitrogen content. These findings indicate that using a soil-improving cropping system (SICS), whereby a combination of approaches are used, appears to be the best way of improving soil health whilst increasing yields.

For more information see: https://soilcare-project.eu/study-sites2/szaniawy-poland

A fact sheet in Polish is available here https://tinyurl.com/byrxv5cx

Bare soils are contributing to soil erosion, nitrogen loss and runoff of nutrients in Osaker, Norway. A study was conducted to explore ways of reducing the prevalence of bare soils through growing cover crops. Cover crops, alongside preventing Nitrogen losses and protecting soil from erosion, may be beneficial for building soil organic carbon, crop yields, and the physical health of soil. An experiment using 5 treatments which were replicated three times was carried out. These treatments included a control (bare soil), a Spring sown N-fixing cover crop mix of chicory, perennial ryegrass and alfafa, a Spring sown cover crop mix of white clover, birdsfoot and common clover, and two different Autumn cover crop mixes: one with Daikon and ryegrass, the other with vetches and peas. No significant differences in crop yields were found between treatments, though the Spring sown cover crop treatment led to the highest relative increase. No significant differences were found between relative crop protein and treatments but the Spring sown N-mix had the highest levels. The treatments did not result in any significant differences in aggregate stability or soil organic carbon. The extreme weather events in both of the study years made it difficult to establish a sufficient density of cover crops during the experiment. High temperatures in 2018 resulted in poor growth and an excess of mineral N in the soil, whilst heavy rainfall in 2019 also stunted the growth of the cover crops. This likely contributed to the lack of significant results seen in this study.

For more information see: https://soilcare-project.eu/study-sites2/akershus-norway

A factsheet is available in Norwegian here https://tinyurl.com/586rcfb2

Soil organic matter loss and soil compaction are widespread soil health issues. A study undertaken in Veneto, Italy between 2018-2020 explored the potential of conservation tillage and deep-rooting radish for alleviating compaction and increasing soil organic matter levels. 'Tillage' radish was used due to its deep-rooting characteristics. This means it is likely to create root channels in the soil, thus alleviating compaction and increasing soil organic matter. Conservation tillage was also tested as it greatly reduces compaction when compared against conventional tillage practices. The treatments used included tillage radish, winter wheat, and bare soil, all of which were tested under conventional tillage and no tillage. Each of these treatments were replicated twice. The findings revealed significant yield differences between tillage practices in year 1, with conventional tillage resulting in the highest yields. This was, in part, due to adverse climate conditions during sowing. In year 2, the yields were more stable between tillage practices. In addition, soil hydraulic conductivity varied between treatments with no clear effects. Earthworm counts were significantly higher under no tillage but no significant differences were found with and without cover crops. In conclusion, the no tillage treatment was more sensitive to weather events. However, after a longer conversion period, conservation agriculture may reduce production costs whilst maintaining high yields. Longer term studies are needed to explore whether these practices could lead to long-term improvements in soil health.

For more information see: https://tinyurl.com/75y4wwdx

A fact sheet in Italian in available here https://tinyurl.com/298jd3ec

Vineyards in Crete, Greece, are susceptible to soil erosion. There is, therefore, a need to seek practices which prevent soil loss whilst maintaining profitability. This study explored whether planting vetch cover crops would reduce soil erosion whilst increasing N availability. Cover crops were chosen as a potential option for reducing soil erosion as it is a simple approach which keeps soil covered and increases root density. The experiment compared areas with and without cover crops. It was found that the vetch cover crops reduced soil erosion by 20% on average when compared against areas with no cover crops. In addition, earthworm counts were higher under cover crops. Weed infestation was also 20% less under vetch cover crop, indicating that these plants can outcompete weeds, thus reducing the need for pesticides. Overall, the biological health and condition of the soil under vetch cover crops was considerably better than under no cover crop. Vetch application is, therefore, recommended as a cheap way of controlling soil erosion and improving soil health.

For more information see: https://soilcare-project.eu/study-sites2/chania-crete-greece

A fact sheet in Greek is available here https://tinyurl.com/akrjdvbd

Olives represent 86% of tree plantations in Crete, Greece, making it the most important crop on the island. Conventional practices are, however, causing environmental problems including soil erosion. There is, therefore, a need to identify practices which prevent erosion whilst maintaining profitability of the crop. This study compared tilled sites against no-till sites in olive groves. It was hypothesised that tillage would affect soil erosion rates and that less tillage would lead to improvements in soil health by reducing soil organic matter loss, keeping microorganisms intact and minimising compaction. It was found that adopting no-till had a considerable impact on soil erosion rates, with reductions of 22% on average. In addition, the number of earthworms was higher in the non-tilled plots. However, weed infestation was around 10% higher under no-till and mineral N and available P was reduced under no-till, but not significantly so. In conclusion, tillage contributes significantly to soil erosion in olive groves and leads to exposed tree roots, making them more prone to disease. The biological health of the soil in the no-till plots was better than under tillage. It was also found that irrigation increased soil erosion as this results in shallow roots which are less resilient to water stress. In conclusion, adopting no tillage is beneficial for controlling soil erosion and improving soil health in olive groves.

For more information see: https://soilcare-project.eu/study-sites2/chania-crete-greece

A fact sheet in Greek is available here https://tinyurl.com/2u5pdrkd

Orange cultivation is a major enterprise in Crete, Greece. However, severe market competition has led to orange production resulting in little to no profit for producers. Avocados have been proposed as an alternative crop to oranges as they may be more profitable for producers. Little is known, however, about the effects of planting avocados on soil erosion or quality. The present study explored this by comparing erosion rates between a 45 year old orange grove and an avocado farm which was converted 20 years ago. After 2.5 years of monitoring, it was found that avocado trees caused less soil erosion than orange orchards. In addition, exchangable magnesium levels and saturated hydraulic conductivity were both were increased under avocado. In addition, soil organic carbon levels were higher under avocado than under orange, though no significant differences were found. Extreme rainfall occurred during the study, which triggered erosion on both sites. Soil loss monitoring reveals that using no-till reduced soil erosion by over 25%. In conclusion, avocado farms, besides being more profitable than orange groves in Crete, do not appear to have adverse effects on soil quality or erosion. This makes them a good alternative to oranges where producers are struggling to make a profit growing oranges.

For more information see:https://soilcare-project.eu/study-sites2/chania-crete-greece

A fact sheet is available in Greek here https://tinyurl.com/b29bxx7e

Glyphosate has become increasingly controversial in recent years, largely due to its implications for environmental health. The study explored the effects of glyphosate on soil microorganisms at a study site in Tachenhausen, Germany. In addition, the experiment determined whether cover crops could suppress weeds, thus reducing the need for glyphosate applications. Treatments 1 and 2 used cover crops but no glyphosate whilst treatments 3 and 4 used glyphosate but no cover crops (fallow). All treatments were replicated 4 times. Treatments 3 and 4 were sprayed with glyphosate for seedbed preparation two weeks before sowing. Maize was sown on all plots in April 2019, harvested in the Autumn, and followed by spring barley in March. All plots used the same reduced tillage, fertiliser, and pest management. The difference in yields between treatments was non-significant and glyphosate applications had no significant effect on quality or quantity in either year. After glyphosate application, a temporary stress response of microorganisms occurred, characterised by an increase in B-glucosidase activity. This response was weaker in the cover crop plots than in the fallow plots. There were significant differences in weed infestation between plots; cover crop treatments had greater weed pressure. There were no significant differences in worm counts between treatments but earthworm biomass was significantly higher under cover crops than under fallow. In conclusion, cover crops did not negatively affect yields and can help to control weeds. Conservation agriculture should aim to reduce the need for glyphosate by adopting shallow tillage and enhanced crop rotations including cover crops.

For more information: https://tinyurl.com/nzf5ru7y

Organic maize cultivation usually demands several actions for reducing weed burdens, including a succession of harrowing, rotary hoeing, and interrow hoeing. These tools, drawn by heavy machinery, can result in increased soil compaction. In addition, these methods are inefficient for controlling weeds on cultivated rows. A SoilCare experiment in Brittany, France, aimed to resolve this problem by trialling whether sowing cover crops (buckwheat) on the cultivated rows would minimise soil compaction and successfully reduce weed pressure. The experiment was carried out on two farms, with a control (i.e., usual weed control practices) and experimental plot (cover crop between rows) at each site. The results found few significant differences, with soil organic carbon and soil bulk density showing no change between treatments. Crop yield was slightly lower in the treatment plots, but not significantly so. However, weed infestation was higher in the treatment plots than in the control plots, indicating that hoeing is more efficient for managing crops than the competitive nature of buckwheat. A longer term study is needed to determine whether using cover crops between rows reduces weed pressures over time. In addition, the ability of these cover crops to reduce soil erosion should be explored.

For more information see https://soilcare-project.eu/study-sites2/brittany-france

A fact sheet in French is available here https://tinyurl.com/7ans8u4d

Soil erosion in Brittany, France, occurs due to the topography, heavy rainfall, a loss of hedgerows, and tillage during wet periods. The use of tillage in rainy periods is particularly prevalent for wheat farmers, who sow in mid-November. In addition, Brittany is prone to Nitrogen loss due to the difficulties with establishing a successful cover crop. The French SoilCare experiment aimed to explore whether these issues could be resolved by sowing wheat early with companion plants. Two replicates were carried out for each treatment. Treatment one was a control, with wheat sown in mid-November as usual, whilst treatment 2 involved sowing in August and incorporating various companion crops with the wheat (clover, buckwheat, nyger). The bulk density of the soil (top 10-20cm) was significantly higher in the treatment plots, as were water stable aggregates. No significant differences were found between treatments and soil organic carbon levels or micobial biomass levels, but both were slightly higher in the treatment plots in year 2 of the experiment. There were no significant findings relating to nutrient availability, though P availability was slightly higher in the control plots in year 2. In conclusion, early sowing of wheat may reduce soil erosion, primarily due to the increase in water stable aggregates. A longer term trial may also result in higher soil organic carbon levels where wheat is sown early. Further research is needed to explore the long-term effects of sowing wheat in August rather than in mid-November.

For more information see https://soilcare-project.eu/study-sites2/brittany-france

Fact sheet available in French here https://tinyurl.com/48y7ujv5

The Danish SoilCare experiment aimed to explore whether the addition of animal manures, the use of cover crops, and the inclusion of legume-based leys would result in chemical, physical, and biological improvements in soil health. A long-term experimental study site in Foloum, central Denmark was used for the study. Several treatments were used; some incorporated a single addition whilst others incorporated all three. There was also a control plot under conventional farming to enable comparisons to be made. The results indicated that bulk density was significantly altered depending on the treatment, with the control plot with farmyard manure but no cover crops resulting in the highest levels. Earthworm counts were also significantly different between treatments, with the plot incorporating all three treatments resulting in the highest counts. Significant differences were also found for nutrient availability of P, K, and Mg, however, the best treatment varied between nutrients. There were non-significant changes in soil organic carbon and relative crop yield between treatments. A key limitation of this study was the site chosen; the soil was already of high quality. Regardless, using cover crops and animal manure affected nutrient availability. Organic plots had lower yields than conventional plots, however, this yield gap was lessened through using cover crops and manure. In conclusion, using cover crops, manure and legume-based leys can all maintain or improve soil health and help to lessen the yield gap between conventional and organic farming systems. Learn more about this experiment: https://www.soilcare-project.eu/study-sites2/viborg-denmark

The UK SoilCare experiment explored whether deep rooting grass cultivars (Festuloliums) perform better than a rye grass clover mix control for sheep forage whilst helping alleviate soil compaction. These deep rooting cultivars could increase water infiltration rates by ~50%. Cocksfoot cultivars were also developed for their deep-rooting characteristics but have not been tested for their potential to deliver ecosystem services. These leys could contribute to reducing soil compaction and flood risk by improving soil structure and porosity for better water infiltration and holding capacity. They could also help to sequester carbon below the plough layer (approx. 30 cm). A plot trial experiment was carried out from 2016-2020. There were two test cultivars, Festulolium, ‘Fojtan’, and an agricultural Cocksfoot cultivar, ‘Donata’. Control plots contained a standard ryegrass mixture with white clover and red clover.

Key findings:

•In unharvested plots, Fojtan had significantly higher root volume at depth than the other leys

•Less intensive harvesting and lower associated compaction may increase the potential for reduced flood risk through Fojtan root growth

•Fojtan and Donata are as productive and palatable to weaned lambs as a conventional ryegrass and clover ley

•Cutting and grazing forage creates soil compaction and reduces root growth and the soil’s ability to absorb water

• Fojtan could contribute to flood risk management if combined with low intensity harvesting

•The different grass cultivars resulted in no significant differences in VESS scores, earthworm counts, soil organic carbon or penetration resistance.

For more information visit: https://soilcare-project.eu/study-sites2/loddington-united-kingdom

All soils in agriculture need good management. A soil-improving cropping system, or SICS, is an integrated approach to soil management which helps farmers improve soil quality for crop production. To implement a SICS, farmers may review crops in the rotation and adjust their inputs and agro-management measures in other aspects of the cropping system.

While it is possible to design a SICS to address a specific soil threat, you can implement a general SICS to improve soil quality in general and improve the overall yield potential of a site.

The components of your SCIS will depend on the climate, land and soil and on broader economic conditions. Researchers in the SoilCare project have identified possible measures in the following areas which support crop yield potential, depending on the context: crop rotation, organic fertilisation, drainage, irrigation in the right conditions, well-managed tillage, integrated pest and weed management, mulching, controlled traffic of machinery, and landscape measures. Landscape management is not yet much considered in cropping systems, but there is evidence that by working in groups or with other stakeholders, farmers taking measures at the landscape level can boost soil quality and crop productivity.

A SICS may need short-term investment but should deliver benefits in the long term. The advantage of a generic SICS is that it has a wide application. However, if you face a specific soil threat, such as salinization, desertification or compaction, it may be more effective and efficient to implement a soil threat-specific SICS.

For more information, see www.soilcare-project.eu. A summary review report on SICS is available here https://tinyurl.com/yaspd3vl

If you farm crops, it is more than likely that you are managing for one or more soil threats. There are 10 soil threats that crop farmers may face: acidification, erosion, compaction, pollution, loss of soil organic matter or biodiversity, salinisation, flooding, landslides or desertification.

The SoilCare project has compiled information on soil-improving cropping systems, or SICS, that could be used to prevent and mitigate specific soil issues.

The researchers recommend all soil threat-specific SICS should include crop rotations. Then, the nature of the soil threat should guide selection of inputs and measures in other aspects of the cropping system: nutrient, weed and pest management, irrigation and drainage, tillage, mechanisation and residue, and wider landscape management. For example, a SICS to address soil pollution may focus on reducing pesticides, including hyper-accumulation crops in the rotation and nutrient management measures to adjust soil pH and break down pollutants. Whereas, a SICS to address erosion may put more emphasis on tillage and residue management, contour trafficking and measures at the landscape scale, such as terracing or planting hedges. There is no universally applicable SICS – it must be designed to suit the threat, your site and soil type, the climate, the economic conditions and your own preferences.

Implementing a soil threat-specific SICS enables you to target a known soil issue. The downside is possibly neglecting other aspects of soil quality and making it more complicated to address other soil threats, although SICS exist that improve soil quality in general.

For a discussion of SICS and examples see www.soilcare-project.eu. A summary on SICS is available here https://tinyurl.com/yaspd3vl

Crop farmers are designers of cropping systems: the particular combinations of crop type, rotations and agronomic techniques that they follow for crop production on the farm. A ‘soil-improving cropping system’, or SICS, is a cropping system which is designed to improve soil quality, address any soil threats and contribute to profitability and sustainability. A good SICS is a cropping system in harmony; an integrated combination of crop rotation and agro-management techniques, considering nutrient, weed and pest management, irrigation and drainage, tillage, mechanisation and residue, and wider landscape management.

To develop an SICS, you may choose to adjust components of your cropping system to improve soil quality in general or to respond to a specific soil issue you are experiencing. Farming faces 10 soil threats: acidification, erosion, compaction, pollution, loss of soil organic matter or biodiversity, salinisation, flooding, landslides or desertification. A SICS to address compaction, for example, might include deep-rooting crops in the rotation, manuring, reduced tillage and controls to reduce wheel loads and tyre inflation. There is no universally applicable SICS – it must be designed to suit your site and soil type, the climate, the economic conditions and your own preferences.

SICS are measured by their impact on crop yield and quality, profitability, soil quality, resource use and the environment and human health. Researchers estimate that there may be a short-term hit but that in the long term SICS have a positive effect on profitability.

For more information about designing a SICS, see the SoilCare website at www.soilcare-project.eu. A summary review report on SICS is available here https://tinyurl.com/yaspd3vl

Who: Researchers at 28 universities and research institutes across Europe are collaborating with farmers, advisers and other stakeholders in the SoilCare project.

What: The project partners are assessing ‘soil-improving cropping systems’, or SICS. These are cropping systems which are designed to improve soil quality, address soil threats and contribute to profitability and sustainability. Promising SICS are being trialled at 16 study sites covering a range of cropping systems and soil issues, from soil degradation on orchards in south-east Spain to soil compaction on mixed farms in southern Sweden. Researchers will use modelling to recommend SICS for different locations and crops throughout Europe, and conduct analysis of policies to support better soil management.

Where: The 16 study sites are in Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the UK.

Why: European crop production is facing the challenge to remain competitive, while at the same time reducing negative environmental impacts. Production levels in some cropping systems are maintained by increased inputs and technology, which masks losses in productivity due to reduced soil quality. Farmers, researchers and other stakeholders can work together to increase knowledge of practical measures to address threats such as compaction, salinization and loss of soil biodiversity, and increase the adoption of soil-improving measures on farms in Europe.

When: The project was launched in 2016, and runs until 2021. Find out more at www.soilcare-project.eu.