Feed & food demand offers opportunities for EU legume production, but big challenges are faced; perceived lack of economic competitiveness; production knowledge; awareness of benefits to subsequent crops and soil health; deficient knowledge exchange; demand for local production legumes needs stimulating.

National expert workshops identified good practices and prospective policy measures for incentivizing legume production. Feedback was gathered regarding CAP, EU Strategy for Protein Crops, Farm to Fork Strategy and EU Biodiversity Strategy.

Absence of a dedicated EU level legume policy characterizes the situation and yet legumes are affected by several policy measures, mostly dedicated to more general aims, such as crop diversification or promotion of organic farming.

Workshops identified that policy should focus on the development and strength of legumes value chains rather than production support with supply side payments. Innovation is critical, to provide higher technical efficiency & competitiveness for legume crops. A high degree of international heterogeneity was revealed, with different policy focuses and varied degrees of interaction throughout the value chain.

It is strategically desirable to coordinate instruments among the main policy tools, to allow appropriate and consistent policy to boost EU legume production. Strategic policy reflecting regional needs and the added value of integrated legume value chains will be important. Coordination of all policy instruments is vital. Specific instruments are identified, including promotion of public procurement, producers’ organization, market information for companies and targeted support for the environmental benefits linked to legume cultivation.

Legumes are affected by a complex un-harmonized policy mix. In analysing relevant policy instruments for the near future, an evidence based modelling exercise was effected to support formulation of policies promoting legumes.

Our review showed published policy modelling tools specifically related to legumes to be rare. Most models address farm level decisions and the impact of specific policy measures already in place (e.g., coupled payments). In some works, multiple indicators and multicriteria frameworks account for environmental and ecological concerns linked to legume cultivation.

We used land allocation models to understand farm level incentives and design various policy options. They were further exploited in modelling future policy options concerning eco-schemes - one of the most innovative parts of the CAP reform. Eco-schemes are annual payments for the uptake of voluntary measures related with environment, biodiversity, and climate change. A specific eco-scheme measure for the rotational use of legumes is considered.

Modelling different farm types with simulated optimal crop mixes (Not all farms already cultivated legumes.) a sensitivity analysis to legume introduction showed high heterogeneity among farms in the opportunity cost of legume production.

Searching for optimal eco-scheme design, it was shown that simple measures may incur the self-selection problem- participation most likely among farmers that would cultivate legumes regardless. In these instances, the introduction of this measure will have little impact. Payments may be need adapting as incentives to different farm types. A clear understanding of opportunity costs and environmental objectives, targeted by the instrument is required.

CAP post 2020 increases focus on climate change, environmental protection and landscapes. At least 30% of Pillar 2 funding will be spent on climate and environment measures. 40% of CAP budget will contribute to climate action. Measures promoting nutrient leaching and CO2 emissions reduction need to improve to fit EU policy priorities. Legumes play an important role in facing critical challenges of food security & mitigating climate impacts from agriculture, and legume focussed production can help meet many sustainability goals of the post 2020 CAP. To analyse the impact of different policy instruments towards increasing the EU production of legumes, a series of workshops with expert input were held. Round 1 provided understanding of the national & EU level contexts within which legume related policies exist, also helping to develop an evidence base for Round 2. Round 2 analyse focussed on how to improve existing policies and identify levers for their development; in line with the Farm to Fork and Biodiversity Strategies of the EU Green deal. There was a high degree of heterogeneity between countries, reflecting a need to focus EU policy towards more coherent strategic national plans.

All recognised legume production as an opportunity for society, the environment and economy, but not all regions are equally advanced. Perhaps reflecting private and public policy mechanisms focused on stimulating demand rather than supply and interaction between actors within the value chain.

A strategic approach to policy reflecting regional contexts and demonstrating the added value of integrated legume value chains is important. Future policies need to be consistent and go beyond agriculture, combining health, environmental and food policy.

The European soybean demand is mostly fulfilled by imports. This situation has been questioned because of environmental impacts (e.g. deforestation) associated with soybean production in exporting countries. However, soybean area is rapidly increasing in Europe along with rising demand for locally-produced, non-GM soybean. Assessing European climatic suitability for soybean is thus a key question, although understudied. To fill this gap, we combined two global historical datasets of soybean yield and historical climate data to develop data-driven relationships between key climatic variables and soybean yield using machine learning techniques. Predictive ability of the model was good enough (R² > 0.9) to make reliable projections of soybean yield in Europe.

Projections under historical climate (1981-2010) suggest high climatic suitability for soybean in Europe, revealing large areas (100 Mha) with projected yield ≥ 2 t ha-1 (in 2016, soybean production area in Europe was 5 Mha and average yield 2 t ha- 1). Soybean climatic suitability remains high under climate change with moderate (RCP 4.5) to intense (RCP 8.5) warming, and up to the 2050s and 2090s time horizons, but with a significant shift of suitable areas towards the north-east of Europe. A self-sufficiency level of 50% appears to be achievable in Europe under future climate if 4-5% of the current European cropland is dedicated to soybean production (1.7 % in 2016), although the required soybean expansion would require reductions in the area of other cultivated crop species. These results should be of interest for scientists, but also for decision-making targeted to legume market operators, companies and policy makers.

nicolas.guilpart@agroparistech.fr

Studying four legume suppliers located in Norway, Germany, Portugal and Denmark the aim was to identify how companies seek to increase their market shares in a future European legume market and to assess whether sustainability issues are included in the marketing of their legumes. The large scale Norwegian company only focus on export markets, with highly refined products (protein & starch separation by air classification) for unlimited mixing with traditional food. The yellow pea is imported from Denmark and Baltic countries. In contrast the small scale Danish company focusses on local markets for their own cultivated chick pea and lupine, developing local food chains and applying sustainable agricultural practices, applying principles of agroecology. The two medium size companies located in Germany and Portugal apply different business models:The German company seek to expand their markets, for domestic cultivated and imported faba-beans, including countries outside the middle east. They also produce large amounts of legume flour as food ingredient to increase their future market shares. The Portuguese company mainly focus on the domestic markets for locally cultivated chick pea, but also looks for opportunities to sell smaller amounts of organic chick pea and flour produce for food. The case study revealed that large amounts of legumes will be cultivated within the EU in the future, but that it may make only a minor contribution to a more sustainable food system. However a genuine transition takes place at the niche level, as the small scale Danish case exemplifies. If applied in larger scale and by adopting principles of agroecology such local food systems will contribute to a more sustainable agricultural transition within the EU.

The promise for rising markets for European grown legumes is supported by several macro developments. First, the import of sustainable legumes (mostly soya) into Europe is endangered because of strong competition on the market by Chinese demands.Sustainably grown soya runs the risk of becoming more expensive. So we are in need of alternatives. Next to this, the market for meat replacements is increasing rapidly within Europe and legume protein concentrates are an important raw material to these products. Finally, a development is going on towards more locally produced food products. All these developments are in favor of home grown legumes. Additionally, these crops are very welcome additions to arable rotation across Europe. So, keep an eye on local developments and demands for home grown legumes. They develop more rapidly than you might think.

With a shortage of winter bean seed in the UK growers were asking if spring beans could be sown in the autumn?Replicated plot trials were sown on a range of sites from 2013 to 2019, comparing a spring bean alongside winter beans. Spring bean plots were established at their normal rate (40 plants per sq meter) and at the winter bean rate of 20 plants per square meter. Sites, soil types and spring bean varieties have varied. The winter bean used for comparison was always variety Tundra.Yields were variable over the years. Autumn sown spring beans at 40 plants/m² gave similar yields (101%) to Tundra at 20 plants/m² (100%). Autumn sown spring beans at 20 plants/m² gave lower yields (88%). In some years and at some sites, autumn sown SB20 yielded a little higher than SB40.

The winters during the trial period were relatively mild, but there were been cold snaps. It should be noted that all PGRO winter bean trials were covered with a 1mm mesh ground net after pre-emergence herbicide to protect against crows, rooks etc. It may have provided some slight protection against frosts.

Guidance: If using Farm Saved Seed testing is considered essential. Don’t plant too early, target drilling last week of October through to mid-November in the UK.

Avoid plants being too proud through winter. Sowing deep can minimise lush top growth in early winter.If autumn planting spring beans, aim to achieve at least 40 established plants/m². Amongst other traits winter beans are bred for cold tolerance, branching and a high tolerance to Ascochyta so alert to diseases, especially Ascochyta and chocolate spot. Autumn planted spring beans are earlier to mature than either winter beans or spring planted beans.

For discussion with the researcher contact Steve Belcher at PGRO (steve@pgro.org )

Dry pea production of more than 2 Mio. t is the second most produced grain legume in the EU after soybean. From 2014 to 2018, France, Lithuania, Germany, Spain, Romania and the UK represented around 80% of the EU production. Conventional cultivation dominates. The main consumers are France, Spain, Germany, UK and Italy. The main use in feeding, but the processed proportion for food is increasing. The largest processors of dry pea in the EU are Roquette (FR & NL), Emsland Group (DE) and Cosucra (BE & DK). The main importers are Spain (feedingstuffs), Belgium (foodstuffs: protein extraction), Germany (foodstuffs: starch extraction) and Italy (feedingstuffs). Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan and Canada supply dry pea to the EU. The main EU exporters are France, Lithuania and Romania. Export destinations outside the EU are India (food), Bangladesh (food), Norway (fish feed), China (food: starch extraction) and Switzerland (food). The Indian market has practically collapsed since 2018 due to import duties on legumes.

Faba bean with an average production of 1.8 Mio. t is the third largest produced grain legume in the EU. UK, France, Lithuania, Germany and Italy represent 70% of EU production. The conventional farming dominates. The main consumers are UK, Germany, France and Italy with the main use for feed and a very small amount for food. In contrast to dry pea, there is not import of faba bean from non-EU countries. The main importers in the EU are Spain (feedingstuffs) and Italy (feedingstuffs) and these imports are mainly from the UK, Lithuania, France and Latvia. Exports outside the EU are mainly destined to Egypt (food) with a decreasing trend, Norway (fish feed) and Sudan (food), both with an increasing trend.

Ref: kezeya.bruno@fh-swf.de

It is unclear why soybean protein content varies widely from year to year and from location to location. The range can be from 35% to over 42%. A literature study reveals the influential factors.

About 50% -75% of soya bean nitrogen requirement comes from N-fixation via root nodules, the rest from the soil.

A successful inoculation with Rhizobium bacteria is essential for achieving a high yield and protein content. The number and position of the nodules on the root system appears to be important. Side root and deeper root nodules may be essential for optimal N-fixation. Inoculating the soil rather than the seed, or in addition to the seed, seems to increase the N-fixation considerably. Spraying Rhizobium before flowering can also have a positive effect on the number and location of the nodules.

In high yielding crops N deficiency can occur during pod filling, N-fertilizer application in that crop stage may have a profitable effect on both yield and protein content.

During seed filling, the activity of the root nodules decreases and nitrogen is redistributed from the leaves and pods to the seed. Varieties with a higher protein content, appear to be able to continue with the N fixation until the R6 stage, fixing more nitrogen in a later crop stage to increase the protein content.

The protein content of soy is determined by the variety, cultivation method, growing conditions, and the root nodules. The interaction between all these factors and yield, makes it a very complex process. Farmers can’t control the protein content of their soy but can influence it by variety choice, and possibly an additional soil inoculation, and by a small N-application during pod filling stage. chris.devisser@wur.nl

To incentivize European legume production, different EU and national policies have been introduced including CAP measures and others such as Environmental, Food, Health and Energy policies: Member States (MS) can provide payments coupled with the cultivation of legume crops, cultivate legume crops within Ecological Focus Areas (EFAs), or provide subsidies for agro-ecological schemes including cultivated legumes. The study reviewed policies affecting legumes and analyzed their impact. Seven national workshops were held to gather expert views on the influence of current EU and national level policies. Analysis provided an understanding of contexts within which legume related policies were designed and implemented. The EU policy environment for agriculture is complex, comprising a mix of regulatory, advice and incentive interventions. Implementation is on a common basis but with some flexibility both between and within MSs. CAP Pillar 1 Greening , an EU level policy, was seen to have a positive impact on the volume of legumes produced in each MS. The policy dependent nature of this also implies that gains made would largely be lost if the policy instrument were to be removed. Dependency on public funding is unsustainable demonstrating the need to consider the effectiveness of the overall policy framework for increasing legume production - area, yield and market development - at both an EU and MS level. The results highlight the need for explicit policies for research and innovation in the sector. They also raised the issue of the impact of contradictory policy interactions, and a lack of understanding of the wider opportunities associated with legume production (i.e. the eco-systemic role legume crops play for humanity and the environment).

The bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera) is the pest that causes most damage to chickpeas and the larvae of which are polyphagous and feed on a large range of the most important crops. The larvae mainly attack the grain in formation stage and also some flowers at the beginning of fruiting.

If the population was not controlled, the damages can be devastating and the production loss values can reach at 50% or more.

So that’s why it’s important monitor the pest early on. Pest monitoring can be made with pheromone traps that will capture the adults. Depending on the number of captured adult, adopt the strategy of combat with the approved active ingredients.

Important, some bollworm populations show some resistance to pyrethroid insecticides.



To control de bollworm´s population you can use approved insecticides:



This pest control can also be done with strategies that includes Bacillus thuringiensis sp. however in Portugal there is not a product of this type approved for chickpeas.



The leaf-miner is another pest that attacks chickpeas but in Portugal the crop damages are practically non-existent.

https://agroinov.com/

The main disease of chickpea is Ascocytosis. Ascocytosis is a disease caused by a fungal pathogen called Ascochyta rabiei. The disease begins in the vegetative phase when the crop starts to produce exudates. Exudates create a moist environment throughout the plant, which combined with temperatures about 20-25ºC create the ideal conditions for fungal infection.

Ascocytosis attacks leaves, stems, flowers and fruits and if it left unchecked can cause the total loss of plants in the field.

The symptoms are circle-shaped necrosis with the black pycnidia in the center.

An infection vector may be the infected crop residues and therefore chickpea production should not be repeated on the same parcel for 4 to 5 years.

Using seed treated with fungicide is the first step against ascocytosis.



To control and eliminate the infection in the field , the approved fungicides may be applied:

Chickpea is a self-sufficient nitrogen crop. Plants mostly use atmospheric nitrogen through the symbiotic relationship they establish with a genus of soil bacteria (Mesorhizobium). This symbiosis relationship begins in the early stages of crop development (about 6 weeks after sowing) and can be observed through the formation of nodules in plant roots. So, due to this symbiosis, chickpea do not require nitrogen fertilization throughout the crop cycle.



However, nodule formation is not immediate so it´s important to apply a small amount of nitrogenous fertilizer (20-30 nitrogen units) at sowing.

At sowing also apply 60-70 (P2O5) phosphorus units and 20-30 (K2O) potassium units (considering the soil analysis, these values should be adjusted).



In pre-flowering, a boron (B) leaf application is very important to achieve higher flowering rates.



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The soil should be in the best physical conditions to promote rapid and successful roots growth. Before sowing, it´s important to do a proper soil management and it also can reduces input costs and improves yields.

So, for sowing chickpeas (conventional mode) it´s advisable:

 Due to the chickpea’s deep root system, the best choice are deeply tillage operations (moldboard plough, mulch tiller, chisel);

 Try to make soil as crumbling as possible to facilitate seed cover;

 After sowing it´s advisable to use de rolling harrow. This operation promotes the contact between soil and grain which increases the success rate in germination.



Traditionally in Portugal the chickpeas were sown in spring. Chickpeas were sown on these dates to avoid wetter weather that would cause fungal diseases. Due to the genetic improvement techniques (development of varieties with resistance to fungal attacks) and the appearance of active substances against fungus, it´s possible to anticipate the sowing date and the yield/ha can be increased by it. So, in Portugal we have two sowing dates (depending on the variety to sow)

Winter Sowing Spring Sowing

Sowing date 15 Nov.-15 Dec. 15 Feb.-15 Mar.

Sowing density 150 kg/ha 100-120 kg/ha



Sowing can be done in two ways:

• Cereal seeder: line space – 17-25 cm;

• Pneumatic/monograin seeder: line space – 30-60 cm.



https://agroinov.com/

Choose the most suitable place



Like all crops, chickpeas require some specific conditions to express their maximum yield potential. Some of the most important aspects to consider is the proper choice of soil type and plot of land. The type of soils where chickpeas express their greatest potencial is in clay-limestone, and loamy soils. Chickpeas also thrive in well-drained and deep alluvial soils.

For good crop development, choose:

 Soils with good drainage,

 Plots well exposed to sunlight,

 pH values between 7-8,5,

 soils where no chickpeas have been grown in the last 4-5 years,

 Plots with low seed bank,

 Deep soils (chickpea roots explore the soil in depth).



AVOID:

 Waterlogged soils: the crop is very sensitive to excess water in the roots and root asphyxiatoin occurs easily,

 Very high pH soils: high pH values may cause iron deficiencies,

 Acid and sandy soils: Rhizobium may not be present,

 Plots with many weeds: in the early stages, chickpeas have poor competition ability and there are very few solutions to control weeds (herbicides). The weeds also causes difficulties in harvesting.

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Chickpea are the third most important grain legumes in the world. According to FAO data area and crop performance are increasing. Year 2017 :14.6 million hectares and production 14.8million tons. In Portugal is a small producer yet the trend is the same. Rotational benefits and the superior financial returns drive the trend. Not an agricultural commodity, prices are not defined the international market. In recent years, prices have been derived by major producers, using schedule based on seed size. Large fluctuations in the value result, creating uncertainty for all actors in the chain. AICF Agro Inovação S.A., a company dedicated to the production of grain legumes, such as chickpea, has been trying to define new strategies for the production and sale of the final product for human consumption, allowing all actors in the chain to take advantage.

To avoid price fluctuations to farmers, AICF uses 3 year fixed price contracts.With security for all actors in the chain. The Agricultural Marketing Resource Center report economic viability of chickpea using on the same strategy. Ultimately it depends on market development, contract and seed pricing, and production capability.

Contracts define the seed price, produce quality specifications and prices. Permissible percentages for grain sizes, broken grain and impurities are defined. The cost of the seed and impurities is deducted from the final production value. Note that contract values are the minimum prices, taking into account the producer company, and are in accord with studies realized to reach the average cost of production/hectares, edaphoclimatic conditions of the production area and margin for the company.

The fixed price strategy allows the value chain to be strengthened.

https://agroinov.com/

High levels of bruchid damage and very dry weather in some years can lead to variable bean seed quality. Field bean samples tested at PGRO from August to October 2018 had an average germination of 79.5%, with winter beans at 79% and spring beans 83%. Germination can be affected by physical damage to the seed caused when harvesting over-dry crops, chemical contamination by glyphosate, or insect damage such as bruchid damage. It is therefore important to test seed for germination capacity. Losses between 10 and 15% germination have been recorded when bruchid damage is between 40% and 80%. Damage causes seeds to decay before germination leading to establishment failure.

Crops harvested at low moisture content, particularly less than 12%, may incur mechanical damage during harvesting or cleaning. Mechanical damage to seed causes seedling abnormalities and increased infection by soil-borne pathogens such as damping off (Pythium spp.), lowering germination capacity.

If glyphosate is used as a desiccant, seedling abnormalities are likely to arise if the seed from the treated crop is used.

Field bean seed should be tested for stem and bulb nematode and Ascochyta fabae. Stem and bulb nematodes are seed and soil-borne and can lead to crop failures and reduction in produce quality if left unidentified. Ascochyta fabae causes leaf and pod spot in beans, reducing yield and quality, and is a seed-borne disease.

Ditylenchus gigas

Thought to be the main species affecting UK field beans, it causes significant crop damage but has a limited host range that includes the following:

Vicia faba, Lens culinaris, Vicia and Lathyrus spp., Pisum sativum, Allium spp., Ranunculus arvensis, Convolvulus arvensis, Lamium album, Lamium purpureum, Lamium amplexicaule, Avena sterilis (Stawniak, 2011)

Avoidance of beans in the same rotation as these species will help to reduce the chances of rapid build-up of D. gigas.

Ditylenchus dipsaci

Thought to be the less common species affecting field UK beans, D. dipsaci has many plant hosts, including Alliums, Brassicas, bulb flowers, field and broad beans, oats, sugar beet, hemp, strawberries, lucerne, tobacco, Phaseolus beans, phlox, peas, rye, potatoes, clover, maize and some weeds. As such, management of rotations is more difficult, although some crops in the rotation may be treated with nematicides, reducing populations overall. A list of species can be found at https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/19287.

Before sending a seed sample for testing it is important that a representative sample is taken from the seed bulk.

Sampling:

If possible, take samples when seed arrives in the store, but if seed is already in store sample using a spear;

Collect 20 random samples from across the seed lot. Size of samples should be roughly equal and bulked to form a single composite sample of at least 1200 grams. Reducing the number of samples or weight of the composite sample will reduce detection of nematodes, potentially leading to false negative results. Send 1200 grams of seed to a specialist laboratory for stem nematode analysis;

If seed is from more than one field, consider taking a separate sample of seed from each field prior to bulking in order to collect a representative sample;

If an issue in a field is suspected, store and sample seed from it separately.

Testing:

Laboratories should test at least 600 grams of seed per sample received;

Test three replicates of 200 grams per sample;

Reducing the weight of sample tested may reduce detection of nematodes, potentially leading to false negative results;

If nematodes are detected, field and broad beans should not be grown in the rotation for ten years.

A ‘Clear’ test is an indication, not a guarantee, that the crop or seed will be free of nematodes. Low levels of infestation may be below the limit of detection of the test. Testing services are offered at www.pgro.org

Stem and bulb nematodes are slender, transparent and virtually microscopic. They can be found in large numbers within the stem or leaf tissue or in seed, by microscopic examination. Ditylenchus gigas is the most common and damaging species in field beans, but Ditylenchus dipsaci can also be present. The nematodes can be seed-borne and can also survive in the soil in a free-living form. The main routes of infestation on farms are from the use of infested seed, infested bulbs or contaminated soil.

This pest is one of the most important problems in UK field beans. Following introduction and establishment in soils, nematodes remain viable for many years, placing future crops at risk from damage, which is often first seen as plants reach flowering stage. Earlier symptoms may be found at any stage.

Plants may be stunted, stems thickened and twisted. Leaves become thick and brittle with bronze discolouration and stems may swell, twist and break. Pods fail to fill evenly, and seeds become black and shrivelled as they mature. Single affected plants in a field may indicate a seed source, more general crop damage indicating a field infestation. Multiplication of nematodes is enhanced in a wet spring and crop loss can be substantial. Infested seed is unsuitable for planting, but beans are still usable in animal feed compounds and blemish-free produce may still be suitable for export.

If a field has been infested, ten years should elapse before beans are grown.

In-store

Traders may not accept field beans for any purpose with live beetles present. Although B. rufimanus does not re-infest stored beans, infested beans are best left on the farm until the emergence period is over, which in most years is complete by late October. If, however, this is not possible, then fumigation may be considered. Beetles may be killed by a recommended grain storage insecticide, but it is unlikely to control pupae or adults which have not yet emerged. Fumigation of beans intended for seed is possible.

In-field

The timing of sprays is critical to prevent egg-laying as control of larvae is not possible. During flowering examine crops for adults by tapping flowering stems onto the hand or a tray. Some insecticides may be used in field and broad beans during flowering and control is improved by combining spray timing with temperature forecasts.

Apply a spray when adults are found in the crop, 50% of the bean plants have first pods on lowest trusses and recorded maximum daily temperature has reached at least 20°C on two consecutive days. Apply a second spray 7-10 days later. Research has shown that if the spray is applied through angled nozzles or twin caps angles both ways using a medium spray quality, control is significantly improved. Insecticide should be applied in the early morning or late evening to avoid direct contact with bees.

A forecasting system developed by Syngenta Crop Protection UK and PGRO, ‘BruchidCast’, is available at www.syngenta.co.uk/bruchidcast.

Bruchus rufimanus (bruchid beetle) is widespread in field and broad beans in many parts of England. Damage to field beans is visible as circular holes in the seed where adult beetles have emerged. In broad beans, seeds may be blemished or infested with immature larvae. The most significant effect of damage is to reduce the value of the crop for human consumption or seed and at high levels, germination of seed may be significantly reduced. Bruchus rufimanus is endemic in the UK, has one generation each year and does not multiply in stored produce.

Adults are 3.5 - 4.5 mm long, oval, black or dark brown in colour with small, grey flecks along the wing cases. Larvae are white, segmented, fleshy grubs, 3 - 4 mm long when fully grown, and have a light brown head with small legs on the forward three segments.

Adults emerge from overwintering sites during April and May in the UK and eggs are laid singly on the surface of developing pods. Eggs are translucent, 0.5 mm long and are fixed to the pod surface. Egg laying is concentrated on lower pods and after a few days larvae hatch and bore through the pod wall into the developing seed. Development continues in seeds where the larva feeds and pupates, usually at the time that seed is mature and dry. After pupation the adult bites through the seed coat, leaving a circular hole in the bean. Many beetles emerge before harvest, but emergence may take place in store. Some smaller holes are made by the parasitic wasp Triaspis luteipes.

Where crops have been grown in short rotations, most growers have recognised the need to diversify, yet it takes time to change and gain confidence in new systems.

Catch and cover cropping have become a significant part of arable rotations and although wholeheartedly adopted by some, others are working out how best to benefit from them.

Regardless of approach to crop establishment, equipment and soil cover, extending crop rotations has well-proven benefits:

Extending rotations can: create a diverse mosaic of crops in the landscape, biodiversity at the crop scale, and benefits to native fauna; create more diverse soils, which may reduce the impact of soil-borne pests and diseases; minimise the establishment and growth of weeds and reduce the need for herbicides; improve soil structure (in combination with conservation/ restoration tillage techniques), organic matter content, water retention and plant nutrition; reduce the need for fertiliser inputs when in combination with nitrogen fixing crops.



As the impact of more limited chemical inputs increases in many crops, the adoption of integrated management techniques is more important and this starts with a wide rotation, accepting that crop alternatives can be limited and compromise often necessary.

Including of pulses in rotations, delivers numerous benefits: enhanced soil health and fertility, increased environmental diversity both above and below ground, yield boosts to following crops, higher levels of N to following crops from nitrogen fixation, alternative weed control options, ability to spread workload, breaking disease cycles.

In contemplating the rotation, peas and beans should be considered as the same crop.

Faba beans can replace soya in beef diets. BUT there are several differences between the two which will vary in importance depending on the age of the animals being fed. Misinformation includes that tannins and other anti-nutritionals in beans will reduce livestock performance – but at the levels required for balanced ruminant rations this is never an issue.Yet a number of beef farmers have been using beans successfully in various forms to reduce, or even eliminate, their need for bought-in protein. Hipro soya which is heat-treated during the oil extraction process to denature the trypsin inhibitors which would otherwise interfere with protein digestion. This treatment is not required for home-grown beans. However, the difference in protein level and quality does affect the way that the two are utilised by the animal.

When rationing ruminants it is important to balance the amount of ERDP (Effective Rumen Degradable Protein) and DUP (Digestible Undegradable Protein) and this varies for different ages and classes of stock. Younger beef cattle need some DUP in early life when the rumen is not fully functional. Lupins can be a direct replacement for soya in calf diets but, from around 3 to 4 months of age, the entire supplementary protein requirement can usually be met by using beans. The forms in which beans can be fed will vary according to availability of other feeds, on farm storage and processing capacity, building design and feeding system. Beans are currently under-utilised in beef diets and ruminant rations in general. Many mixed farms can certainly become more self-sufficient in their livestock enterprises by adding a legume to their crop rotation. This will improve soil health and fertility as well as the profitability of the livestock enterprise.

Use of cover crops has repeatedly demonstrated that they can have significant effects on soil structure and moisture retention, compaction, nutrient fluxes and crop development. Cover crops reduce foot rot development and consequently improved yield in vining peas (2018, sandy loam). Foot rot severity (measured on a scale of 0-5) was significantly lower in the Vetch and Oat + Clover treatments compared to stubble.

Overall, the use of cover crops significantly increased yields for all treatments. Oat + Clover cover crop showed the biggest benefit in this trial with a strong decrease in foot rot development and a corresponding yield increase of 1.5 t/ha.

Maintaining vegetation over winter minimises nitrate leaching. This has been demonstrated recently

in separate projects investigating cover crops by Anglian Water/ADAS and PGRO.

Anglian Water are confident that cover crops can be used to improve water quality whilst PGRO are demonstrating their ability to alleviate foot rot and poor soil environments in the context of pulses. Cover crops present an opportunity to reduce nitrate pollution, cut expensive N inputs and simultaneously improve/regenerate our soil. A fuller report can be found in the Summer edition of PGRO’s The Pulse Magazine 2019, page 8 . http://www.graphicgeneweb.co.uk/flip/mobile/

Field beans (Vicia faba) is one of the protein crops that has large potential for use in the feed and food industry. With a protein content of on average 28% and a yield of 6 t/ha it is the crop with the highest protein yield per ha in the Netherlands. Yet the financial income for Dutch farmers is not high enough to compete with other crops. Therefore variety trials were done on different locations (sand and clay) to study varieties with higher and more stable yields and higher protein contents. Because there are no ongoing breeding activities on field beans in the Netherlands these varieties originated from Austria, Germany and UK. Besides spring beans also winter beans have been included.

The highest yielding variety appeared to be LG Cartouche with yields up to 8.5 t/ha on clay soils in 2017 followed closely by Fuego and Fanfare. In 2016 the yields however were not higher than 5 t/ha mainly due to severe virus attack submitted by aphids. Also leaf diseases are a treat to the field bean crop and fungicide applications are necessary in most years to avoid disappointing yields. Winter beans did not outyield spring beans and showed more risk in a winter with some severe frost. Therefor famers are advised to choose for a spring bean variety when considering growing field beans.

Value chain projects are in progress to use field bean (meal) as an additive in bread, bakery products and in meat replacement products.



For more information contact:

Ruud Timmer, researcher protein crops (ruud.timmer@wur.nl).

https://www.wur.nl/en/Research-Results/Research-Institutes/plant-resear…

Soybean price for the food market is largely determined by the protein content. The minimum requirement for protein is 42% in certain food markets depending on the processing and the quality of the end product. Therefor it is important for farmers to know how they can influence the protein content of their crop. Improving the understanding of the factors determining the level of protein content in soya beans is one of the items Dutch research is focussing on.

It is known that protein content is to a large extent genetically determined; certain varieties have the highest protein content every year while others always are relatively low in protein. Choosing a variety high in protein can help to meet the requested 42%. But under Dutch circumstances the protein level fluctuates from year to year due to (local) circumstances like drought, temperature, radiation and nitrogen availability. Successful nodulation (by Rhizobium inoculation) is the basis for high yields and high protein contents but adding a nitrogen fertilizer at a later growth stage can influence the protein content as well. A small N-fertilization at beginning of pod filling sometimes increases the protein content but the action is uncertain. At this stage, the best and most reliable measure farmers can take to influence protein content, is variety choice.



For more information contact:

Chris de Visser, Business Unit Manager Wageningen UR Lelystad (chris.devisser@wur.nl) or Ruud Timmer, researcher protein crops (ruud.timmer@wur.nl).

https://www.wur.nl/en/Research-Results/Research-Institutes/plant-resear…

Good soil health and structure are important for growing vining peas. Intensive production can lead to soil structural issues and can lead to microbial communities that contain larger numbers of plant pathogens and less beneficial microbes. One option to improve soil health and structure is the use or cover crops (planted in late summer in between cash crops and grown over winter to provide cover for soils) and catch crops (planted after harvest of cash crop and incorporated in autumn before planting a winter sown cash crop). Generally cover crop treatments retain soil moisture. The crop mixture used in combination with potentially beneficial effects on microbial ecology may explain the positive yield response.

After vining peas, the effect of catch crops on soil health and following winter wheat development has been examined. Samples were taken from plots with preceding cover crops, preceding catch crops and overlapping sections. Catch crop mixes containing buckwheat appeared to depress straw and ear weight in subsequent wheat crops, possibly due to allelopathic effects of buckwheat on competitor seedling germination. Buckwheat has been shown to suppress winter wheat germination given insufficient time between destruction and drilling (Kumar et al. 2011, Weed Science, 59:567–573).

Results indicate that cover crops can improve soil health and structure by reducing soil compaction, reducing nitrogen leaching, improving soil moisture, reducing effects of foot rot pathogens and improving pea yield. Results differ by field site and season trials continue, to increase robustness of observed trends. More information can be found here https://www.pgro.org/veg-ebook-2018/mobile/index.html in the PGRO Vegetable Magazine 2018/19.

In the Netherlands a market is growing for home grown soya production. At present,

the number of farmers involved as well as the area have increased to around 80 farmers on 400 ha.

To support this development, variety trials were set up to inform farmers and the value chains on the best varieties for Dutch circumstances. High yields (>3.5 t/ha) and high protein content (>42%) are the most important requirements next to a maturity date that was not too late to increase unwanted risks. Trials were done on different locations in the Netherlands as it was assumed that the different regions would result in different variety choices. Because there are no ongoing breeding activities on soya in the Netherlands, these varieties originated Austria, Swiss, Germany and France. The highest yielding variety appeared to be Obelix with up to 5.2 t/ha in some years followed closely by Alexa and Viola with up to 5.0 t/ha. Generally, crops in the South were earlier and better yielding than in the North but protein content showed no stable difference. Specific local circumstances like drought and also temperature appeared to be very much influencing yield and also maturity. So far, protein contents did not generally exceed the requested 42%. Maximum protein contents were 41%, so not yet meeting the demand. Experiments will continue to identify the best varieties for Dutch circumstances.



For more information contact:

Chris de Visser, Business Unit Manager Wageningen UR Lelystad (chris.devisser@wur.nl) or Ruud Timmer, researcher protein crops (ruud.timmer@wur.nl).

https://www.wur.nl/en/Research-Results/Research-Institutes/plant-resear…

The prevalence of legume-supported cropping-systems in Europe remains very low, covering less than 3% of cropped area. The European protein requirement is mainly satisfied by soybean imports produced in Americas, delivered in bulk and mainly for animal feed use. The current negative state began with the historical choice by the EU to identify and encourage grain-legumes as a main commodity for animal feed and meat production, placing them in direct competition with imported soybeans. If more profitable aggregation of European legume production is still to offset soybean imports, the development of grain legumes for human consumption is a new challenge to foster sustainable food diets. This can be achieved for a broad range of species such as chickpea, lentil, pea and faba bean. Furthermore, of the numerous initiatives to improve farmer gross margins, such uptake is also aimed to enhance valuable regional food cultures as alternative visions through more profitable short supply chains to sustain local development in the long term. Such small operations will need to be balanced against large-scale aggregation, and tailored to ambitions identified by European, national and regional strategic development programs.

Several projects, funded by the EU Horizon2020 Programme, started in 2017, and will contribute to the development of legume-based value chains throughout Europe. We report here on the innovation projects TRUE (www.true-project.eu) and LegValue (www.legvalue.eu),and outline their common ambitions and early insights towards identifying how legumes may be placed as the foundation of new transition paths to sustainable development of food systems in Europe and in the Mediterranean region.

The food legume market is much smaller for feed, yet consumers’ dietary habits influence the development of legume chains directly by legumes being fed in the production of meat, fish, eggs, and dairy products.



The average EU citizen consumes more protein than the daily of 0.83g / kg body weight recommended by the World Health Organization. The consumption of animal protein is too high and considered unsustainable. When taking into account that not all of the animal is consumed the production of 1 kg of animal protein takes 4.3, 11.9 or 25.9kg of plant protein (chicken, pork or beef).



Consumer perception: in recent years, EU consumers seem to be becoming more aware of their food, preferring to consume less animal protein (or meat), replacing it with plant protein. Reasons given for this include – health, overfishing, sustainability, animal welfare and regionalism.



Approaches to promote plant protein consumption: generally the consumption of plant protein sources such as pulses is promoted, indirectly replacing animal protein intake. There is an increased albeit still marginal consumption of meat replacements from plant protein based processed products. Other approaches focus producing plant protein based products (e.g. soya milk) to replace dairy protein. More literal, meat replacements are products such as tofu, made from soya milk, and tempeh, made from fermented soya beans. Pea protein can be used to produce noodles, although not a meat replacement in this application. Presentation takes many forms, ranging from energy/fruit bars and pasta to the more direct meat replacement products such as patties. Meat replacements have the advantage that no or only little changes are required to meal preparations, thus improving acceptance.

EU imports circa 30 mil t/yr Soya bean and meal products. Soya import values may increase due to international demand. Sharp price rises 2007-13 saw imports fall by 30%. Current prices are still 50-75 % higher than in 1999 but imports have increased again. Rising import prices raise the EU-grown protein crop values increasing the competitive position and reducing yield gap. Competitiveness of EU legumes and breeding:Investment in plant breeding and protein production is needed to reduce EU soya imports. The priority list is mentioned by the Focus group on Protein Crops of the European Innovation Partnership. Priority grain legumes for feed include soya bean, faba bean, field pea and lupins. Forage legume priorities include mainly alfalfa. Breeding of more competitive varieties is required but poor current EU market opportunities for legumes draw less commercial interest. A catch-22 situation of interdependency which EU policy may be used to break.

Integrating legumes into farming systems:

Assuming competitive legume crops are available, the introduction, expansion, and assimilation of legume benefits into EU arable systems is an important issue. With rising costs for N-fertiliser and animal feed, mixing clover with grass on pastures is getting more interest from dairy farmers. An interesting question is why Alfalfa is not grown more often on EU grasslands - it can be grazed or preserved as silage or hay. To replace soya bean in compound feed, inclusion levels of alternatives are likely limited, requiring a mixture of soya replacements. Legumes other than soya being used in non-compound feeds: whole cropping beans in the UK, as roughage and protein, faba beans for cattle and sheep and peas as forage feed. Locally Soya beans can be used as roughage.

Annually, the EU imports around 30 million tonnes of soya bean and meal products. Soya import values may increase due to increasing international demand. Sharp price rises in the period 2007-13 saw imports fall by 30%. Current prices are still 50-75 % higher than in 1999 but imports have increased again. Rising import prices raise the EU-grown protein crop values increasing the competitive position and reducing yield gap.



Competitiveness of EU legumes and breeding: investment in plant breeding and protein production are needed to reduce EU soya imports. Grain legumes to replace imports for feed include EU grown soya bean, faba bean, field pea and lupins. Also, alfalfa may be considered. Breeding for more competitive varieties is required but poor current EU market opportunities for legumes draw less commercial interest. A catch-22 situation of interdependency which EU policy may be used to break.



Integrating legumes into farming systems:

assuming competitive legume crops are available, the introduction, expansion, and assimilation of legume benefits into EU arable systems is an important issue.

With rising costs for N-fertiliser and animal feed, mixing clover with grass on pastures is getting more interesting to dairy farmers. An interesting question is why Alfalfa is not grown more often on EU grasslands - it can be grazed or preserved as silage or hay.



To replace soya bean in compound feed, inclusion levels of alternatives are likely limited, requiring a mixture of soya replacements. Legumes other than soya being used in non-compound feeds: whole cropping beans in the UK, as roughage and protein, faba beans for cattle and sheep and peas as forage feed. Locally, soya beans can be used as roughage.

How to meet world population protein demand by 2050? Rising wealth and population increases pressure on agriculture to provide. Solutions lie in reduced protein consumption with less from meat.

Present policy impact: GATT agreements in 1962 drove large scale imports of soya into EU. Import tariffs for wheat were compensated by tariff free trade on substitutes –mostly soya. Cheap feed protein imports expanded EU intensive livestock production.

Regulations in 2017 banned pesticide use on Ecological Focus Area’s. This will negatively impact EU legumes reducing yields or by alternative EFA land use choices.

GM protein crops are not approved for cultivation in the EU. Asynchronous to crop production, GM importation requires un-authorised product segregation. Financial risks hamper trade. North & South American producers may focus on less regulated markets such as China, increasing EU sourcing problems. More EU grown non-GM soy, will increase EU livestock farmer costs, reducing competitiveness as cheaper GM soya will still be available internationally.

The biofuel blending mandate negatively affects legume production development. More land in rapeseed production for biodiesel, yields mid-protein coproduct used for animal feed.

The German Renewable Energy Act promotes maize for biogas. More land producing silage maize, increases competition for arable land, negatively affecting legume value chains.

The Dutch governments ‘Green Deal’ initiative facilitates sustainability developments by adjusting regulations, supporting negotiations, and/or helping companies enter foreign markets. A wide ranging scope includes the biobased economy. Initiatives like this may positively affect legume production development.

A report has been put together that considers macro-developments that can influence the development of legume value chains in the European Union. A highly important development refers to the growing world population that at the same time requires more meat and more luxury consumption resulting in more plant protein demand. The EU’s dependency on protein rich animal feed also represents a challenge. This could be overcome by growing more legumes in the EU. An increase in legume production will also allow us to profit from ecological services both on a farm level and the societal level. Developments regarding legume value chains specifically for feed are discussed with a focus on soya bean production and its associated imports. Aspects like plant breeding, feed alternatives, and integration of legumes in farming systems are addressed. The plant protein market with a promise to reduce meat consumption focus on current protein intake of EU citizens, promotion of legume consumption, and meat replacement products.

Farmers practicing arable farming (without animals) who cultivate faba-beans and grass-clover as part of their crop rotation face both advantages and challenges. Grass-clover is a legume crop which Danish farmers have been accustomed to cultivating for centuries and the climatic zone in Denmark makes this crop easy to handle. Grass-clover is cultivated as grazing fields for cattle or under-sown together with other types of crops; for example wheat. In organic farming the grass-clover ley is the foundation for successful crop production where nitrogen fixation by clover acts as a natural nitrogen fertilizer factory for succeeding crops in the rotation. However, for arable farmers the income per ha is lower than for annual crops. Compared to grass-clover, faba-beans poses more agronomic challenges for Danish crop farmers even though more stable and reliable cultivars have been developed. The Danish climate can challenge faba-bean yield due to poor competitive ability towards weeds especially in the early growth stages, severe aphid attacks and chocolate spot disease.

To promote domestic cultivation and utilization of grass-clover and especially faba-bean, we suggest more emphasis is put on the many ESS (Eco System Services) provided by these legumes. The value of e.g. faba-beans as a pre-crop must be disseminated. The resulting lower requirements for fertilizer and pest control (rotational effects), etc must be appreciated. The availability of new sowing machinery (e.g. Cameleon) facilitating dual seeding (intercropping), under-sowing and also mechanical weeding must also be disseminated. The economic benefits to farmers with direct co-operating and trading should also be addressed - both through field and fodder exchange.

Danish pig farmers have begun to utilize faba-beans in their fodder mix - especially on organic pig farms - hence the use of domestically cultivated proteins instead of the traditional imported soya-beans. Faba-beans are cultivated on the pig farm, purchased from local farmers, or bought from the fodder company. Faba-beans is a valuable feed ingredient for pigs, and the content of tannin does not impact the nutrient value. Compared to when used for dairy cattle feed, utilized for pig fodder, no toasting is required, lowering the final fodder protein cost. As pigs grow a bit slower when feed by faba-beans the result is more meat-weight that fat-weight gain, providing a better quality and possible net-price for farmers. This is in contrast to most pig feed consultancies, which advocate the soybean amino acid composition as much more favourable than that of the faba bean. Within the pig farmer communities in Denmark there seems, to be a lack of knowledge about the value of faba-beans as protein source in pig rearing, and more knowledge dissemination within this part of the agricultural sector is needed. To increase domestic cultivation and utilization of faba-bean amongst pig farmers in Denmark, we suggest that pig farmers begin to co-operate among each other and share e.g. faba-bean storage capacity and dryers, as well as faba-bean grinders for home feed mixers.

As many organic farmers lack organic fertilizer to supply nitrogen to their crops for economic production levels, the current regulation allows fertilisation of organic fields with non-organic fertilizer e.g. manure from conventional pig and cattle farms. This contrasts to the original organic farming values regarded as a critical challenge for the future of organic farming. New ways of providing organic fertilizer must therefore be developed to further expand organic areas in Denmark, demanded by both consumers and political goals. A biogas plant has recently been deployed in Denmark on an organic vegetable and egg producing farm, with the purpose of producing fertilizer for farm fields and energy to the local municipality. The biogas output, ‘digestate’, is utilized as fertilizer - high in nitrogen content and other valuable macro and micro-nutrients depending on the feedstock used to feed the biogas plant. The current feedstock is primarily manure from chickens (250.000 egg producing hens), and grass-clover from 70 ha land. The farm is now self-sufficient with fertilizer (digestate), and capable of expanding the organic arable land even further. Besides digestate production, the biogas plant produces renewable energy in the form of methane gas, which - besides supply of heat and electricity to the local community – it could also be utilized for transportation purposes within the agro-sector. Separation of grass-clover in a protein and green stuff fraction is also interesting for farmers - ongoing research continues at Aarhus University, Denmark. Adding the gas rich green fibre fraction from grass-clover to the biogas plant, and using the protein-juice directly as animal fodder, will create multiple advantage of such biogas plants.

Danish dairy farmers (organic farms) are cultivating both faba-beans and grass-clover for fodder proteins and crop rotation purposes. Dairy farmers are keen to use grass-clover and faba-beans as animal fodder, as it is organic, cultivated domestically and has a high protein content. Grass-clover and faba-beans are cultivated on the dairy farms or/and purchased from other crop farmers, and the latter also from fodder companies. Danish dairy farmers seem increasingly interested in providing their own protein fodder instead of relying on import of soya-beans from e.g. South America with questionable environmental impacts, as far as cultivation practices, quality and transportation. To increase domestic cultivation and utilization of faba-bean among dairy farmers in Denmark, we suggest to establish stronger co-operation between farmers to e.g. share storage facility for faba-beans, as larger storage space is needed, not being required for the small batches of soya-beans being delivered relatively often by fodder companies. Also, sharing of farm equipment like toasters, increasing the amino content of the faba-bean - and thus the nutrient value - are recommended, as well as faba-bean dryers. Buying and selling faba-beans among Danish farmers, as well as sharing storage facility and equipment, will facilitate a further expansion of the cultivation and utilization of protein legumes in Denmark.