Once colonies infected with American foulbrood have been identified, they must be removed from the apiary and destroyed as soon as possible. For preventing the spread of American foulbrood, control measures have to be applied in a proper way.

Colonies that are positive for American foulbrood must be closed when it is dark, so that all foragers are also closed inside the hive and the hive must be removed from the apiary.

Suppress infected colonies by burning a disc of sulphur inside the closed hive.

Destroy bees, combs, hives and all unsterilized material with fire, taking care to burn them in stoves or ovens, or at the very least in a hole in the ground.

Do not burn the material to be destroyed in the form of a bonfire in the field: any unburnt parts, especially honey, wax or propolis drippings, may remain in the field still infected and attract bees which then could become infected.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

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American foulbrood is a very contagious disease. In case there are infected colonies in the area (within a radius of at least 3 km), monitoring the health status of the hives is indispensable for early detection and immediate control.

The American foulbrood is a disease that must be reported to the local health authorities.

The health authorities, together with the beekeeper involved, must immediately inform other beekeepers in the area about the presence of the disease.

The health authorities can check the bee registry for all apiaries within a 3 km radius of the area where the disease was detected and contact the beekeepers who manage those apiaries to inform them about the presence of an American foulbrood outbreak in the area.

Beekeeping associations in the area also have to cooperate with the veterinary authorities by reporting the problem.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

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Visual inspection of brood combs is very important to check for the presence or absence of brood disease symptoms, especially those of American foulbrood. For optimal inspection, some simple steps should be followed.

Shake the frames inside the hive to remove most of the bees and get a full and clear view of the brood.

Carefully inspect all brood frames, even those containing just little brood, and always on both sides.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

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The management of asymptomatic colonies in apiaries where American foulbrood has already been detected is crucial for its early detection.

Check asymptomatic colonies periodically to ensure the absence of the disease.

Use properly disinfected and dedicated equipment (smoker, gloves and lever) not to be used in other apiaries.

Do not move materials (bees, frames, honeycombs) from one hive to another or from an apiary where American foulbrood have already been identified until you the disease has been eradicated.

Several laboratory methods are available to check the presence of American fouldbrood spores from different matrices (wax, debris, honey, etc.)

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

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Once the presence of American foulbrood in the apiary has been identified, it is essential to ensure biosecurity by removing all potentially infected or contaminated material.

Remove and destroy all infected colonies.

Remove materials that has been in contact with infected colonies (gloves, smoker, frames, etc.) and sanitise them, if possible, otherwise destroy by burning.

Destruction of non-sanitised material should be done in stoves or ovens that allow complete combustion of the material and away from the apiary, so to reduce or eliminate the risk of unburnt or partially burnt material remaining infected.

Constantly monitor all remaining colonies to be able to assess the absence of new cases or to detect them promptly if they arise.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

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Disinfection of flammable bee material is a major technical problem. The key issue is to assess the risk of spreading the pathogen.

The most effective method of disinfecting flammable material is gamma sterilisation.

However, it might be not easy to find companies that offer this service.

The wax can be effectively sterilised in an autoclave at high temperature and pressure.

In the event of contamination by pathogens that are not particularly resistant, the wood material can be sterilized with the flame of a gas torch.

Other material can be disinfected with chemical disinfectants based on active oxygen or sodium hypochlorite.

In case of the American foulbrood, gamma irradiation or the autoclave sterilisation of wax are the only effective sterilisation methods, destroying all material by burning in stoves or ovens should prevail.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

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American foulbrood that is a highly contagious and dangerous to honey bees must be managed locally. All beekeepers in an area should cooperate to manage American foulbrood, always being in contact with the local veterinary authorities.

Promptly report American foulbrood cases to the health authorities (as required by law) and other beekeepers in the area.

Organise collective disinfection services. For example, organise collective shipments of material to be disinfected with gamma radiation.

Cooperate with and help less experienced beekeepers in handling infected or potentially contaminated material.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

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American foulbrood has obvious, clearly visible and recognisable symptoms whose detection is crucial in order to be able to intervene in time.

The brood affected by American foulbrood immediately appears as non-regular, with capped cells alternating with non-capped brood cells, resulting in a mosaic-like structure.

Looking more closely, it is possible to observe cells with concave capping and, in some cases, with perforated cappings.

Not every brood cell with a perforated capping is affected by American foulbrood. There is a very simple and safe way to check for the presence of American foulbrood: pierce the cell with a capping already perforated with a toothpick. If a thread of brown mucus comes out and sticks to the toothpick, it is a symptom of American foulbrood.

If there are no cells with perforated cappings, the test can also be done on cells with a concave capping. However, the test on cells with a perforated capping is more reliable.

Commercial kits are available to test for the presence of American foulbrood.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

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In order to reduce stress on bees, it is important to inspect colonies with favourable weather conditions whenever possible. Working under unsuitable conditions also increases the aggressiveness of the bees or damages the brood due to the low temperature.

Open the hives when there is flying activity. The fact that the bees are flying is already an indicator that the weather conditions are suitable.

Avoid opening hives in rainy weather (increased humidity in the hive) or strong winds (cooling of the brood and increased stress on the bees). Avoid opening hives at temperatures below 12 °C.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

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Optimising visits is important both to reduce bee stress and working time. For this, some simple measures or the use of innovative technology can help. By carefully visiting each hive and recording the data in a field notebook or on a sheet, it is possible to get an overview of the given hive based on the last visit without having to open it.

Today there are also dedicated apps that record and store the data collected.

Marking the colonies on which intervention is needed (e.g. inserting a new queen, checking the outcome of mating, etc.) with signs on the hive (stones, branches, ribbons) makes it possible to identify immediately and from the outside but this information is at risk (e.g. wind can move the branches) and it is not standardized so it is preferable to use a notebook or sheet, record the data and preserve it.

The use of scales and sensors makes it possible to assess the status and progress of the colonies, their development and nectar collection from a distance and without opening them.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

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At each visit, it is important to assess the internal status of the colony, taking into consideration various aspects: the strength of the colony, the presence of the queen, the oviposition activity, the consistency of the stocks, the presence of symptoms of diseases or parasites.

Colony strength is assessed by considering how many frames are well covered by bees and how much of the available area is occupied by brood.

A strong colony in peak season must have all frames well covered with bees and at least 80 per cent of the frames with large areas of compact brood.

The quantity of pollen and honey stocks must also be carefully monitored.

The presence of the queen can be assessed either by looking for it or by checking presence of eggs in the cells. It takes 3 days for the eggs to become larvae, so if there are eggs it means that maximum 3 days earlier the queen was present (and most probably still is). At this time, even if the queen is absent, the bees are still able to set up royal cells by taking eggs for developing a new queen.

The presence of only male brood, even in worker cells, is a classic sign of the presence of a worker bee that has started laying eggs after a prolonged absence of the queen.

Oviposition activity is assessed by looking at the area occupied by the brood and its ‘quality’. Large, compact brood surfaces indicate good laying activity.

Conversely, small brood surfaces, with uneven, mosaic brood or cells with brood of distinctly different ages is an indication of poor oviposition activity.

The stock assessment is done by counting the frames with honey and pollen.

A good stock is about two frames with honey and about two half frames of pollen.

The health assessment must ascertain the absence or presence of obvious symptoms of disease or parasites.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

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After artificial or natural swarming and during spring recovery, it is important to give colonies enough space to grow in size, increase the bee population and avoid the risk of swarming.

Making an artificial swarm is the main way to divide a strong colony that may be at risk of swarming or to increase the number of colonies.

A wax sheet or an already built frame is added to the hive as a divider so that the colony is delimited. A feeder can also be used instead of a divider, which both stimulates nutrition and accelerate colony development. The same operation can be done with a colony which had been restricted to a few frames during the winter.

In spring, it is advisable that the wax sheet or built-up frame is placed between the side brood frame and the first brood frame, so as not to split the brood frames and to allow more effective thermoregulation.

When seasonal temperatures are high, the wax sheet can also be placed between two brood frames. In this way, it will be built up more quickly and will mainly be used for brood rearing.

When the wax sheet is built up or the frame that was given has been filled with honey or brood, add a new one if a nectar flow is present.

Preferably add one new frame at a time, maximum two, so as not to give too much space all at once to the colony which may not be able to manage it.

The use of a divider is important to prevent bees from building combs freely in any empty space of the hive.

It is also necessary to regularly monitor the construction of new frames in order to add more and avoid slowing down the growth of the entire colony.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

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Assessing the space needed by a growing colony is important to avoid or delay swarming and not to give too much space to a colony that does not need it, reducing its thermoregulatory efficiency.

Assess whether the bees abundantly cover all available frames. If this is the case, a new wax sheet or an already built frame should be given to expand the colony. At the next visit assess whether the wax sheet has been built and is being filled, or whether it has been filled with honey or brood. In case of the latter and if the bees cover all the available frames, a new wax sheet or a new built frame can be added.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

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Colonies should always have enough honey, at least 5 kg. This can be estimated considering that a full honey comb can contain 2-2.5 kg of honey. Stock assessment can be done during the visits to the apiary or through the use of electronic scales.

Stocks must be constantly assessed, especially during critical periods when bees do not have the opportunity to forage such as: in winter, during prolonged periods of bad weather, and during droughts.

Rescue feeding is essential for the survival of hives in winter and other seasons. Optimising it is important for the wellbeing of colonies and to keep costs down. Winter and autumn rescue feeding should be done with candy. The use of sugary syrups can give problems such as fermentation in the cells or an excessive increase in humidity inside the hive. In late winter - early spring, feeding can also be done with protein candy, which also provides a stimulus for brood development.

The candy can be placed in the inner cover by making an opening on the envelope and positioning it at the feeding hole of the inner cover. Make sure that the bees, even when in cluster, are exactly under the feeding hole so that they are in direct contact with the candy. The candy can also be placed directly on the frames, after having made an opening on the envelope.

In mid-spring and summer, feeding can also be done with sugary syrups, which also stimulate eggs deposition and provide water, which is particularly important in times of drought. Syrup can be placed in pocket feeders, which can also function as a divider.

The syrup can also be administered in feeders to be placed on the inner cover, which does not require the hive to be opened, but these types of feeders usually have a smaller capacity than pocket feeders.

In any case, before adding the syrup it is necessary to check that there are no dead bees or no mould or mucilage has formed.

Feeding, in any season, can also be done by adding honey frames.

These frames must come from healthy hives, or at le

Overwintering, checking stock availability and choosing a suitable wintering location is crucial for colony survival, health and viability.

One of the most important aspects for the well-being of the colony during overwintering is the right amount of space. Bees should only be kept on the number of frames they can cover by reducing the space in the hive with a divider.

It is also necessary to reduce the space of the hive entrance. During the winter, bees only need adequate food supplies. Stocks must be checked periodically either by visits to the apiary or by electronic scales. It would be advisable to always have into the hives at least 2 kg of food supply available, intervening as needed with rescue nutrition, which can be administered with honey frames or candy. The choice of wintering location is also important. The ideal location should be sunny, protected from prevailing winds and in areas where there is no moisture stagnation. In addition, the location must always be accessible by farm vehicles to allow visits and feeding interventions in a timely manner.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

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Replacing frames is important both for hygiene reasons and because with each brood cycle the inner lumen of the cell shrinks, making it too small and less suitable for breeding new bees. It is generally recommended to replace at least 3 frames per year per hive, removing those older than 3 years, or those that are worn out or mouldy.

To optimise the replacement of frames, it is advisable to put the older ones closer to the wall of the hives on pre-winter visits. This way, at the end of winter or in spring, we will find them empty of both honey and brood and ready to be removed.

Another way to replace the frames when they are full of brood and stock is to use them for the production of artificial swarms. The new swarm should be supplied with five old frames to which wax sheets will be added as it grows.

All old frames that are removed from the hive must be replaced with wax sheets, so that there are always frames in the hive with wax that is not too old.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

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Wax is an important product in the beekeeping economy, especially for the production of wax sheets. Recovering and recycling as much wax as possible is therefore very important.

Wax can be recovered from old frames, from wax encrustations in the hive, from parts of broken or removed combs (e.g. when removing drone brood).

Another important source of wax is the cap of the honeycomb frames that are removed during honey extraction.

The wax can be melted in solar wax melters or steam wax melters.

Once melted, the wax is not attacked by wax moths and can be stored without any particular problems. Obviously, it must be kept away from the sun and heat sources and possible pollutants such as insecticides, etc.

The wax can then be melted again, filtered and sterilised in an autoclave at high temperature and pressure to make wax sheets. This is usually done industrially in waxworks, where one can bring one's own wax to be processed.

It is however possible to handcraft the wax sheets with specific moulds. The important thing is that the wax has been sterilised to avoid making wax sheets containing bee pathogens, in particular American foulbrood spores, which can easily withstand the melting temperatures of wax.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

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Moving only healthy hives is important first not to spread disease over the territory, but also to optimise work: sick colonies are usually less productive than healthy ones. Checking health conditions before moving hives is therefore essential.

Before moving bees, it is always important to carry out a check to assess health conditions and, if hives with obvious or suspected symptoms are found, it is advisable not to move them.

Warning: Verification of existing provisions on the transfer of hives is necessary.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

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Avoiding the transfer of bees or frames with disease symptoms to other hives is essential to prevent spreading honey bee disease within the same apiary or multiple apiaries.

Before moving any beekeeping material from one hive to another, it is essential to check the entire hive for symptoms of honey bee diseases.

In case any suspicious symptoms or a specific disease is detected, no material should be moved from the diseased hive to anywhere else. The diseased hive must be handled appropriately depending on the disease present.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

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Nomadism is a very important practice to improve the productivity of hives or to realise particular production. However, it is necessary to comply with the relevant national or local regulations. Before moving the hives from one location to another, usually it is necessary to inform the National Bee Registry in advance, indicating the number of hives or swarms to be moved and the location of both the departure and destination.

Checking the regulations that apply to the transfer of hives in the particular territory of origin and destination is indispensable before moving the hives.

It is always good practice to check the health status of the hives to be moved and to avoid moving those with symptoms of disease. In some regions, a veterinary examination may be required before moving colonies.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

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Eliminating diseased colonies is important for preventing the spread of diseases, avoiding that the healthy colonies get infected, and to prevent them from reproducing.

The first step is to identify the diseased colony based on the symptoms. Once the colony to be eliminated has been identified, the hive is closed when it is dark to ensure that all the bees, including the foragers, are inside. This is very important because any foragers left outside may go to other hives in the apiary increasing the risk of spreading the disease. The colony could be killed by using sulphur dioxide or other methods.

The box can be disinfected it with a flame and the frames can be melted in the solar wax melter to recover the wax, while the remaining material should be destroyed. In case of American foulbrood, all material other than plastic or metal, including the hive, should be destroyed.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

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Replacing an underperforming queen is one of the key aspects for optimising apiary management and production. The most common visible, undesirable characteristics are: excessive aggressiveness towards the colony, poor oviposition activity, which results in poor colony strength and vitality.

To replace the queen:

1. Identify the queen that is considered to be inefficient and remove it from the hive.
2. Wait a day or two and insert a new, mated queen or a queen cell from a colony selected for the desired features.
3. If the new queen has not already been marked, this is an optimal moment to do so.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

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The right identification of colonies from which to take larvae for the breeding of new queens is very important for the mass selection of the queens themselves and for trying to fix and improve desired genetic traits. The evaluation must be carried out over several years, also assessing the characteristics of the daughter queens. The most important features for which selection should be carried out are listed below:

Assessing oviposition is crucial to understand whether the virgin queen has been fecundated or whether the new fecundated queen introduced into the hive has been accepted and has started laying eggs.

To evaluate whether a virgin queen has been fecundated and has started oviposition, the hive should be controlled about a week after the introduction of the new queen to see if eggs are present. If eggs are present and evenly distributed, the queen mating was most likely successful. The mated queen can also be recognized by her more elongated abdomen and less "quick" movements compared to a virgin queen. After about another week you can check whether there are new, capped female brood cells, which is a definitive confirmation of successful mating.

If an already mated queen has been added to the colony, it is sufficient to check the presence of the eggs and the queen 3-5 days after the queen's addition, to verify acceptance of the queen and the onset of laying eggs.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

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Assessing food reserves is crucial in deciding whether and when to intervene with extra feeding, both in winter and in other seasons when foraging activity is impeded by bad weather or drought.

Honey reserves should be assessed by checking each frame one by one. Both the presence of capped honey and fresh, non-capped honey must be checked. The honey reserve is sufficient if one or both outer frames are full of honey and there is honey on the rim and upper corners of the central brood frames.

It is important to assess also the pollen reserves, which are usually found next to the first brood frames. A pollen reserve is considered ‘good’ if at least two honeycomb half-faces are full of cells with pollen.

Honey reserves (and possibly also candy in winter) can be assessed remotely with the use of electronic scales. The weight of the honey stored in the hive should be assessed, considering that a full nest box is about 2-2.5 kg. The weight of the hive should be evaluated and checked for variations using the scale application on a PC or mobile phone.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

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Adding new supers or honey combs to the hives plays a main role in starting or boosting the production, especially when the original ones are already full, and avoid/reduce swarming tendency. However, it is important to identify the right timing for adding new combs/supers, especially if they are built combs or wax foundations.

The suitable hive for receiving additional honeycombs should have:

The wax moth is a parasitic moth whose larvae can irreparably damage the brood frames even in a few days.

The wax moth larvae prefer brood frames as they feed on the exuviae and pollen that are rich in proteins. Therefore, it is not attracted by empty cells that have not had brood or pollen residues (e.g. frames from supers after the use of a queen excluder). Those frames do not need any special care.

To control wax moth:oth control.

Store the brood frames at temperature below 10 °C. At such temperature, the moth eggs do not hatch and therefore the larvae do not appear. Consequently, in winter, it might be sufficient to store the brood frames in unheated rooms or in a refrigerator/cold room. The moth eggs can also be destroyed by storing the frames in the freezer for about 48 hours. At such temperature the eggs die. After this treatment, the frames can be stored at room temperature as long as they are in sealed containers so that the adult moth cannot reach them to lay new eggs. The brood frames can also be treated by sulphur fumigation. The brood frames are placed in a stack and closed at the top with a lid and one or two sulphur discs are burned at the bottom to release sulfur dioxide gas. After this process, the treated frames can also be stored at room temperature as long as they are in containers where the moth butterflies cannot reach them to lay new eggs. Another method involves the use of biological control methods like Bacillus turingensis. A solution containing the Bacillus can be sprayed on the brood frames. Bacillus turingensis is lethal for larvae, but harmless to bees and humans. Once treated and air-dried, the brood frames can also be stored at room temperature, always kept out of the reach of adult moths.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

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The selection of queens is indispensable for having strong and resilient, viable colonies as well as ensuring higher productivity: 

Heat treatment of the brood combs to control Varroa mites requires an expensive instrument and time.

The heat treatment method is not widely used and sufficient scientific studies are still lacking. However, various devices are already available on the market. Some heat treatments for Varroa control are carried out on the whole colony, while other systems treat individual brood combs.

The method is based on the different thermotolerance of honey bees and Varroa mites. The operculated brood can tolerate short-term heatings up to 44 °C, while the Varroa mite cannot tolerate temperature above 40 °C. There are two different options for heat treatment: either the brood combs can be removed and exposed to heat treatment, or sensors can be attached to the inside of the hives to treat individual colonies. In both cases, the temperature should be close to 44 °C and kept for a few hours to ensure that it warms up the Varroa mites possibly present in the brood cells over their thermotolerance limit. The possible negative effects on bees (e.g. life-span), have not yet been sufficiently investigated.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

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Queen caging is used to ensure an artificial brood interruption, during summer and/or winter (when necessary).

Numerous queen caging devices are available on the market. The can differ in size, materials used and relative cost. All such devices are equipped with a queen excluder that prevents the queen from passing through, but ensures that the worker bees can take care of her.

On average, caging the queen takes longer than treating her with acaricides alone. There are cages made of different materials (e.g. bamboo or plastic) and with different space within the grid.

The two basic types of caging:

1. Caging that does not allow oviposition
2. Caging on a frame allowing oviposition

The duration of caging can be variable. The treatments (e.g. oxalic acid treatments) are carried out when all brood has either been removed and there is no receptive brood (in case of using cages that prevent the queen from oviposition) or all brood is removed but there is still receptive brood (in the case of using cages that allow the queen to lay eggs) that needs to be removed before the treatment.

The position of the cage on the frame should be different in summer and winter. One strategy for caging the queen during winter is to place the cage above the frames so that the bees can take care of the queen and keep her at a suitable temperature more easily (the heat developed by the hive is streaming upwards). Conversely, in case of summer caging, the cage containing the queen should be placed on the lower part of the frame, preferably near the hive entrance to ensure optimal ventilation.

The queen can also be confined for a shorter period of time, restarting the egg-laying activity a few days earlier, allowing a faster recovery for the colony and less stress for the queen. The Varroa mite, in fact, enters the brood cells just before their closing, i.e. on day 9 after oviposition. Therefore, it is possible to release the queen 7 days earlier than the theoretical 24 days, i.e. on day 17. In fact, even assuming that as soon as the queen is released, it begins to lay eggs, the larvae will only be receptive for Varroa mite infestation after 8-9 days, however, in the meantime all the operculated cells present will be hatched. In this way, we can shorten the queen caging period by a week, allowing oviposition to resume earlier, resulting in a faster recovery of the hive. Even if the queen is freed on day 17, anti-varroa treatment must be carried out on day 21 or (in case drone brood is present) on day 24 from the onset of queen caging.

In case of winter caging, the cage containing the queen should remain inside the cluster at all times. During winter, the caging period can be even longer than 24 days and the queen can be released when environmental conditions are favourable for the development of the colony. 

Based on field experience, queens that die inside the cages are assumed to have a priori problems (e.g. low fertility, low pheromone production).

A new alternative to have a brood stop is the queen ringing. This technique involves the use of plastic or silicone rings that are placed around the queen's abdomen. These rings prevent the queen from oviposition.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

Please check out the B-THENET Platform for the Best Beekeeping Practices tailored to each country in the national language, co-developed with practicing beekeepers in the National B-THENET Centres of those countries (Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden).

Brood removal is a beekeeping technique that permits to remove the brood to increase the effectiveness of acaricide treatments (e.g. oxalic acid).

Tools and materials needed:

The active ingredients that are considered to have a low environmental impact (e.g. thymol, menthol, camphor etc.) might vary among the countries.

Only veterinary medicinal products authorized in the given country should be applied.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

Please check out the B-THENET Platform for the Best Beekeeping Practices tailored to each country in the national language, co-developed with practicing beekeepers in the National B-THENET Centres of those countries (Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden). 

Thymol is an active ingredient that is able to kill only the Varroa mites outside the brood cells.

However, thymol-based veterinary medicinal products can also be used in presence of brood, administering them at the times indicated in the package leaflets. Thymol is a natural active ingredient allowed in organic beekeeping (please also check out the relevant national legislation).

Thymol spreads by evaporation and the evaporation rate is influenced by the environmental temperatures outside the hive. In case of high temperatures, the evaporation rate might be too fast, which can cause even serious damage to hives (absconding). If such temperatures are too low, the evaporation rate may be not sufficient thus hindering the efficacy of the treatment.

The instructions given in the information leaflet of the veterinary medicinal product must be followed carefully.

Thymol-based veterinary medical products are generally not suitable for winter treatment.

Since thymol acts by evaporation, it is more effective in densely populated hives having good ventilation and thus better diffusion of the active ingredient within the hive. Therefore, during the treatment with thymol, the mesh bottom of the hives as well as any gaps must be closed to prevent dispersion of the active ingredient, which could reduce the efficacy of the treatment.

To reduce side effects, the treatment can be started during the evening.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

Please check out the B-THENET Platform for the Best Beekeeping Practices tailored to each country in the national language, co-developed with practicing beekeepers in the National B-THENET Centres of those countries (Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden). 

Formic acid is an active ingredient that can kill Varroa mites even within the brood cells.

Evaporation of formic acid is influenced by temperature. High temperatures may lead to an evaporation rate that is too fast, which may cause damage, even serious, to the colonies (absconding, death of adult bees, brood, queens). Conversely, in case of low environmental temperature, the evaporation speed may be too slow which can drastically reduce the effectiveness of the treatment.

The indications given in the information leaflet of the veterinary medicinal product applied must be followed carefully.

Colony strength can determine the success (or failure) of the treatment: densely populated hives permit a better diffusion of the active ingredient inside the hive and improve its efficacy.

Since formic acid is spread by evaporation, it is necessary to close the mesh bottom of the hives to prevent the dispersion of the active ingredient, which could reduce the efficacy of the treatment. 

Some formic acid-based medicines require specific devices for administration.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

Please check out the B-THENET Platform for the Best Beekeeping Practices tailored to each country in the national language, co-developed with practicing beekeepers in the National B-THENET Centres of those countries (Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden). 

Oxalic acid is an active ingredient that can only kill Varroa mites that are outside the brood cells. Therefore, the anti-varroa treatments carried out with products containing oxalic acid as active ingredient must be applied in complete absence of capped brood.

The factors to be considered in case of oxalic acid treatments:

Anti-varroa treatments are necessary to ensure the survival of colonies, their health, and productivity.

For the selection of the best time period for anti-varroa treatments the following aspects must be considered:

Knowing the level of Varroa infestation is fundamental for all beekeepers, both hobbyists and professionals, as Varroa mite is still the main cause of mortality of honey bees all over the world.

The main possible tools of assessing the Varroa mite infestation level:

Theft of both hives and full supers is an increasingly frequent phenomenon that needs to be tackled.

The main type of tools and devices available commercially for preventing hive thefts:

Maintaining an adequate distance between apiaries is important for management and health issues.

Regarding the distances between apiaries, it is important to specify whether we are referring to the distances between the apiaries of the same beekeeper or the distances between the apiaries of different beekeepers.

For apiaries belonging to the same beekeeper, it is recommended to have a distance of at least 3 km among the apiaries. In this way, the bees of one apiary will not be in contact with those of other apiaries and also it is possible to move hives or nuclei between one apiary and another without the risk of the foragers returning to their initial position. Furthermore, in the event of diseases or cases of parasitic re-infestations it is possible to intervene or isolate only the apiaries affected, while if they were less than 3 km away it would be necessary to intervene or isolate all those within a 3 km radius of the apiary having health issues.

For the distances between apiaries of different beekeepers, the national legislation can provide a mandatory minimum distance.

Another aspect linked to the distance from other apiaries is productivity (based on the season, flowering, etc.). Maintaining active communication with the neighbouring beekeepers is always important. Abandoned apiaries or those not bearing the registration code can be reported (based on the national legislation). It is also important to consider the geographical qualities of the foraging territory (for example, a pasture between two slopes compared to one on the plain). The distance among small apiaries should also be considered (e.g. many small apiaries close to each other can still create a bigger problem compared to two large apiaries set-up at larger distances apart). Veterinary associations and official veterinary services can disseminate disease prevention and treatment protocols for apiaries, especially in areas with a high density of apiaries. To guarantee genetic isolation, greater distances (even greater than 10 km) between two apiaries could be advantageous.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

Please check out the B-THENET Platform for the Best Beekeeping Practices tailored to each country in the national language, co-developed with practicing beekeepers in the National B-THENET Centres of those countries (Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden).

Areas exposed to humidity or excessive wind should be avoided for the apiary.

Excessive humidity and wind are poorly tolerated by bees and can favour the onset or worsening of honey bee diseases such as nosemosis or mycosis. To avoid excessive humidity, it is important to avoid extremely shaded areas and areas where fog persists. Excessive wind can drastically reduce the flying and foraging activity of bees, as well as the productivity and well-being of the honey bees. Furthermore, strong wind can uncover or even overturn the hives. To reduce the impact of the wind, the area should be well known and mapped, and advantage must be taken from the wood patches and tree-lined areas that can protect the hives from the stronger wind blow.

Placing the hives in areas with trees can be useful to reduce the effect of the wind, but in autumn and winter there should not be excessive humidity. It is important not to place the hives directly on the ground. This is both to prevent the wood from being damaged and to prevent humidity from entering the hive. It is important that the hives are of good quality and well maintained to avoid water infiltration (and ensure adequate thermal insulation). If possible, increase the roof covering to reduce the possibility of the external side walls of the hive getting wet. Avoid placing hives near watercourses and wetlands (e.g. lakes, ponds, etc.) and depression areas. It is important to make an on-site assessment to understand: the altitude of the terrain, any wind barriers present (or what kind of such barriers can be set up), the trend of the prevailing winds, and to reduce the exposure of the bees to the latter.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

Please check out the B-THENET Platform for the Best Beekeeping Practices tailored to each country in the national language, co-developed with practicing beekeepers in the National B-THENET Centres of those countries (Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden).

Bees can collect nectars or pollen which can have allergenic or toxic effects on people.

In certain countries, this problem mainly concerns the collection and production of pollen. Pollen collected by bees can trigger allergic reactions in people sensitive to the given allergen if inhaled or ingested. In this case placing bees for pollen production in areas where plants that most frequently cause allergic reactions are present (such as parietaria, cypress, hornbeam, goldenrod, sunflower, etc.) should be avoided. However, there could also be accidental contamination. For pollen allergies, it is essential to inform the consumer that the intake of bee pollen can trigger allergic reactions in sensitive individuals. As regards toxic plants, the greatest risk is the presence of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in the pollen. Such alkaloids can be found in plants of botanical families such as: Boraginaceae, Asteraceae, Orchidaceae, and Leguminosae, less frequently in Convolvulaceae and Poaceae, and in at least one species of the Lamiaceae. Another toxic plant is the rhododendron. It is advisable to avoid areas with a high presence of these plants and to carry out laboratory analyzes to search for pyrrolizidine alkaloids in the final honey product.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

Please check out the B-THENET Platform for the Best Beekeeping Practices tailored to each country in the national language, co-developed with practicing beekeepers in the National B-THENET Centres of those countries (Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden).

The accessibility of the apiary with vehicles is crucial for the efficiency of the beekeeper's work and to ensure timely intervention in the hives when needed.

All apiaries should be easily accessible with vehicles in all seasons of the year.

The advantages of the accessibility are numerous:

Avoiding exposure to pollutants is crucial both for the well-being and survival of the hives and for the quality of the bee products.

The main sources of contamination are undoubtedly the phytosanitary treatments carried out in agriculture. This is why it is essential to know the area around the apiary in order to assess whether there are crops that are likely or certain to need treatment, evaluating whether the apiary should be set up there and if so, whether there are times when it needs to be relocated. The most dangerous active ingredients in terms of toxicity to bees are insecticide and acaricide treatments, but fungicide and herbicide treatments can also have a detrimental effect on the hives.

To avoid industrial pollution, the apiaries should not be installed near industrial plants, incinerators and landfills.

Pollution caused by busy roads appears to be less impactful on the quality of bee products than other forms of pollution and contamination. However, it is advisable not to place bees near such roads to avoid the risks of collision with vehicles that might lead to a high mortality of foraging bees. It would be advisable, in such cases, to provide hedges or obstacles to avoid direct collision of bees with high-speed vehicles on particularly busy roads such as freeways/highways.

One of the main sources of the contamination and intoxication occurring in the apiaries is the use of pesticides. It is always necessary to be aware of the pesticides used in the vicinity of the apiary and the times when treatments are carried out on crops.

Fungicides and herbicides can also dangerous for the bees (chronic poisoning).

Assessing the area around the apiary (also by means of ortophotos available on the internet) is important for evaluating possible sources of pollution.

Please note that the responsibility for the quality and healthiness of hive products lies with the beekeeper.

In case of apiaries where the bees might come into contact with pesticides, a regular communication about the pesticide and other treatments should be established between the beekeepers and the farmers. When needed, appropriate actions such as closing or moving hives should be taken. However, the optimal solution is avoiding the vicinity of conventional agriculture when setting up an apiary.

When abnormal mortality of the bees occurs, notify the official veterinary services of the local health authority.

Insecticide treatments carried out in residential, urban and peri-urban areas to control mosquitoes should also be considered. These treatments are linked to the local regulations.
It should be borne in mind that apartment blocks and private individuals also often use mosquito repellents.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

Please check out the B-THENET Platform for the Best Beekeeping Practices tailored to each country in the national language, co-developed with practicing beekeepers in the National B-THENET Centres of those countries (Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden).

Maintaining an adequate number of hives is important for proper management of beekeeping activities and for high quality and efficiency of work.

The appropriate number of hives may vary from person to person and from farm to farm and must take into account

Maintaining a safe distance from houses and villages or to use devices that minimise risks to people is indispensable in beekeeping.

People should be prevented from passing or interfering with the flight paths of bees.

The national law might set a minimum distance between the hives and the from borders of any other properties.

These provisions also apply in the case of urban beekeeping. A hive can therefore hardly be placed on a balcony (because it is too close to other apartments or offices), whereas it might be placed on the roof -  all in accordance with the national legislation.

The national regulations might also set a minimum distance for hives from sugar refineries. For keeping that distance, the nectar flow around the apiary must be evaluated because if there is a shortage in nectars during the season, the bees might forage at greater distances and can reach the sugar refinery. Placing the apiary minimum 4-5 km away from the sugar refinery might decrease the possibility of bees foraging in the area of the industrial plant.

To guarantee adequate safety not only the minimal distances should be considered: the usual use of the surroundings of the apiary must also be assessed to avoid the risk of even accidental contact with flying bees.

In addition to the physical safety of people, other aspects of the vicinity of an apiary must be also taken into consideration:

Having adequate space (warehouses) for storage and working tools is necessary for efficient work.

The storage volume should be calculated considering:

Trees can be valuable for the prevention of atmospheric stress on the bee hives.

In particular, they can:

-provide protection from prevailing winds, and

-provide shade in summer.

Forest patches, rows of trees or even hedges can be used for protection from prevailing wind, provided they are of a certain height (at least 3 metres). The presence of areas with wooded patches or strips makes it possible not only to directly protect the hives from the risk of overhanging or toppling over, but also to guarantee protected flying spaces even in case of strong wind.

Shading in summer can be very important for two goals: reducing the need for ventilation and thus saving work and honey consumption, and guaranteeing safer situations for antivarroa treatments with evaporating active ingredients such as thymol and formic acid. In summer, the shade of the trees is an advantage for both bees and beekeepers.

In any case, it is good to ensure that the presence of trees does not create conditions of excessive shade and humidity in winter and spring. For this reason, deciduous trees are preferable to evergreen ones in the case of stationary apiaries.

It is obviously important to be sure of the stability of these trees to prevent them from falling and causing damage to the hives or the people working under them.

Particular attention should be paid to breeding nuclei as such colonies have greater difficulty in thermoregulating.

In stationary apiaries (maximum 50 hives), wood/iron structures could be built inexpensively (e.g. from bamboo fence panels).

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

Please check out the B-THENET Platform for the Best Beekeeping Practices tailored to each country in the national language, co-developed with practicing beekeepers in the National B-THENET Centres of those countries (Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden).

It is important to avoid obstacles that make it difficult or troublesome to fly for the bees.

The grass and vegetation around the hive should be cut short (always while using appropriate personal protection), so that it does not obstruct the hive opening and prevents or makes it difficult for foraging bees to enter and exit the hive.

Bees must avoid crossing busy roads or railways to avoid the risk of impact with vehicles. If necessary, it is important that the bees cross these areas at a flight height that ensures safety. This can be done by putting up a physical barrier (hedge, wall, cloth, etc.) that forces the bees to fly upwards and reach a safe height before flying over the road.

Avoid installing hives in very windy areas: strong wind prevents flight activity. If this is not possible, install 'green' barriers to protect the apiary from wind exposure.

Tall grass in front of the hive entrance can, however, bring several advantages: reduction of drift and looting, reduction of wasp attack, and partial protection from the wind. Reduce the strip of tall grass in front of the hives to a minimum (to avoid fires, etc.).

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

Please check out the B-THENET Platform for the Best Beekeeping Practices tailored to each country in the national language, co-developed with practicing beekeepers in the National B-THENET Centres of those countries (Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden).

The correct positioning of the hive is important for the activity and well-being of the bees and for the quality and efficiency of the beekeeper's work.

For the activity and well-being of bees, the hive must be positioned on an even and stable surface so as to avoid the risk of tipping, and the opening of the hives should face south, if possible.

For the safety of the beekeeper, the hives should be placed as high as it is comfortable for the beekeeper: hive management should be possible without bending over the hives and the lifting of the hives should be possible with the smallest possible movement.

On average, if the hive is placed 40-50 cm high, both moisture originating from the ground and the entering of small reptiles, beetles, or mice can be prevented.

Iron, wood or concrete posts can be used for supports. Each material has its advantages and disadvantages:

ADVANTAGES
Iron: practical (single structure), light, cheap
Wood: sustainable, non-slip, lightweight
Cement: economical (vineyard poles), non-slip

DISADVANTAGES
Iron: possible slipping of hives, vibration, painting, thermal conductivity
Wood: cost, maintenance (deterioration)
Cement: heavy

The suitability of the materials used should be assessed on a case-by-case basis, taking into consideration also the total weight of the final structure.

Using a spirit level to adjust the base is important to prevent the hives from tipping over, especially when there are many honeycombs that can cause unbalance. If the hive is slightly tilted forwards, the condensation water can evaporate more easily. Position the hives so that the flight direction of the bees does not interfere with the passage of agricultural vehicles or people. The base of the supports must rest on stable, solid ground and/or should be sufficiently wide.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

Please check out the B-THENET Platform for the Best Beekeeping Practices tailored to each country in the national language, co-developed with practicing beekeepers in the National B-THENET Centres of those countries (Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden).

Seasonal relocation of the apiary might be useful or necessary to achieve higher production, ensure better overwintering, guarantee better hive development, and avoid phytosanitary treatments.

For the relocation of the apiaries, the following factors must be considered:

1. Means of transport (trucks, vans, pick-ups, trailers)
2. Lifting equipment (forklifts, hydraulic platforms, cranes)
3. Hives with efficient closures and large ventilation areas

The new site should be chosen according to the various needs within the apiary. E.g., to obtain greater production, a site with an abundance of nectariferous and/or polleniferous blooms should be identified. For better wintering, the site should be sunny, with low humidity, possibly with minimum temperatures that are not excessively cold, and easily accessible in all weather conditions. For better hive or nucleus development, it is important to have a site rich in pollen and also nectar, having mild temperature in spring and not excessively hot and dry in summer. To avoid contact with phytosanitary treatments, the new site should be far from agricultural crop fields, or else, those crops should not require such treatments at that time.

Preparation of hives for the relocation: the hives must be closed to prevent the bees from getting out, but, at the same time, should have large ventilation surfaces to ensure heat dispersion and the passage of air, therefore, removing the sheet metal at the bottom of the hive during hot periods might be advantageous. Hives must be closed when there is no flying activity, i.e. in dark or in case pf rainfalls.

Tips for closing the hives: turn the cover over, tape it shut, place the three-position disc in 'net' mode, do not place the cover, use jack straps and rope between the handles on the outside of the load.

Means of transfer: Trucks, pick-ups, and tow trucks can be used. Closed vehicles such as vans or tarpaulin trucks might also be used. Pallets, cranes, and moving walkways can be used to facilitate the loading and unloading of the hives. In the case of transport with a tarpaulin truck (well-closed), the hives can be kept open to avoid overheating.

Time and mode of travel: The transfer should be done as quickly as possible to reduce the stress for the hives. During the transfer, breaks should be avoided, unless inevitable.

Warnings: May depend on the regulations in force in the given country.

Please check out the B-THENET Platform for the Best Beekeeping Practices tailored to each country in the national language, co-developed with practicing beekeepers in the National B-THENET Centres of those countries (Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden).