AFINET - Agroforestry innovation network (1 of 2)

Forest gardens or homegardens are species-rich systems where forest and fruit species, horticultural and agricultural crops and grazing animals have a mutually beneficial relationship with each other and their environment. That is why this intensive form of farming will be stable and diversified. The basis of a well-established organic permaculture garden is the good design. The first step is the identification of the place on the map, its orientation, and the climate, precipitation and soil condition. When designing the planting structure, terrain and slope exposure and light demand of plants should be also taken into account as the yield and the essential oil content of herbs is influenced by the amount of light. In designing, we follow the principle of vertical levelling, which includes both higher and lower trees, shrubs, herbaceous plants, creeper plants, and the levels of gourmet and wetland habitats. Herbs have an important role to play in several aspects. They can be used, for example, as a disease prevention or as a phytotherapeutic veterinary supplement (eg chamomile, black alder, thyme, peppermint, marigold, pitch grass, juniper, garlic). Many plant associations are known to have a beneficial effect on herbaceous plants and fruits (eg strawberries / tomatoes - garlic, green beans-beetroot, lettuce - mustard). Last but not least, they are good at supporting biological plant protection, because the juices and teas made from them (eg large chanterelle, horsetail, dandelion, garlic) help to protect the crops from pests and pathogens.

Az erdőkertek olyan fajgazdag rendszerek, ahol az erdei- és gyümölcsfajok, kertészeti és mezőgazdasági kultúrnövények és a legelő állatok kölcsönösen előnyös kapcsolatban állnak egymással és környezetükkel. Éppen ezért lesz ez a kevésbé intenzív gazdálkodási forma stabil és változatosan termelékeny. Tervezése során a függőleges szintezettség elvét követjük, ahol egyaránt megtalálhatók a magasabb és alacsonyabb fák, a cserjék, a lágyszárúak, a kúszónövények, valamint a gombatermő és vizes élőhely szintjei. Több szempontból is fontos szerep juthat a rendszerben a gyógynövényeknek. Használhatók például betegségmegelőzés céljára vagy fitoterápiás állatgyógyászati takarmánykiegészítőként (pl. kamilla, fekete nadálytő, kakukkfű, borsmenta, máriatövis, szurokfű, boróka, fokhagyma). Számos növénytársítás ismert, melyekben kedvező hatással vannak a zölségnövényekre és gyümölcsökre (pl. szamóca, paradicsom - fokhagyma, zöldbab-borsfű, saláta - mustár). Nem utolsó sorban jól támogatják a biológiai növényvédelmet, mivel a belőlük készített levek és teák kipermetezve segítenek megvédeni a haszonnövényeket a kártevőktől és a kórokozótól (pl. nagy csalán, mezei zsurló, pitypang, fokhagyma).

How to develop a self-sustaining agroforestry family farm in an area that has been partially abandoned for decades, partly under arable farming? What are the main guiding principles? Farmers from the same family living in Zsörk (Hungary) took into account the microclimatic conditions of the area when designing and establishing the farm. Adapted to local conditions, they have established wood pastures, grazed fruit groves and forest gardens. They have preserved the natural habitats of the undisturbed areas and the old trees of Hungarian varieties of wild fruits (pear, apple, plum, walnut). The cultivation of wild fruits and wild herbs typical of the area is one of the most important parts of development. They formed patches of homegardens or forest gardens by clearing the shrubbered, forested orchards and planting locally bred trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants, and established wood pastures and fruit groves by planting wooded islands on abandoned arable lands and meadows. The diversity of the farm and the inclusion of naturally occurring vegetation make the system more resilient and long-term productive. The main plants are pear, apple, plum, walnut, rosehip, hawthorn, grape, mushroom (grown on logs in forest patches), wild salad plants, spice and herbs. Grazing also requires the use of domestic breeds. In this way, you can create a self-sustaining system that works like a natural ecosystem while producing healthy, chemical-free, high-quality and well-sold food.

Hogyan alakítsunk ki önfenntartó agroerdészeti családi gazdaságot olyan területen, mely részben évtizedek óta felhagyott, részben szántóföldi művelés alatt állt? Melyek a főbb vezérelvek? A Zsörkön élő gazdák a gazdaság megtervezésekor és kialakításakor figyelembe vették a terület mikroklimatikus viszonyait és ehhez alkalmazkodva fáslegelőket, legeltetett gyümölcsligeteket és erdőkerteket hoztak létre. Ezekben megőrizték a hosszú ideje zavartalan területeken kialakult természetes élőhelyeket és a régi magyar gyümölcsfajták öreg fáit. A környékre jellemző vadgyümölcsök és vadon növő fűszer- és gyógynövények termesztésbe vonása a fejlesztés egyik hangsúlyos része. A becserjésedett, beerdősült gyümölcsösökben irtással és helyben szaporított fák, cserjék és lágyszárúak telepítésével erdőkert-foltok, a felhagyott szántókon és kaszálókon fás növénytársulás-szigetek telepítésével gyümölcsligetek és fáslegelők alakíthatók ki. A gazdaság változatossága, valamint a természetes módon megjelenő növényzet bevonása ellenállóbbá és hosszútávon produktívabbá teszi a rendszert. Magyarországon a fő növények a körte, alma, szilva, dió, csipkebogyó, galagonya, szőlő, gomba (erdőfoltokban rönkös termesztés), vadon növő saláta-, fűszer és gyógynövények.A legeltetésnél szintén a hazai tájfajták részesítendők előnyben. Így egy önfenntartó rendszer hozható létre, amely egy természetes ökoszisztéma mintájára működik, miközben egészséges, vegyszermentes, jó minőségű és jól értékesíthető élelmiszert termelünk.

The establishment of energetic tree plantations of high plant density in crop rotation, included in a temporary scale is justified where the use of other agro-techniques is limited or where higher sales revenues can be achieved through special product utilization options. In small and medium-yield farmland, fast-growing tree species (eg poplar or black locust) can be grown in medium-high yields and the dendromass produced can be sold as fuelwood or used for private purposes. After harvesting, the cultivated area is further utilized in coppice system. The last harvest of trees is carried out at the end of the lifetime of the short rotation plantation. Then it can be converted to arable cultivation: before the next year's maize sowing the remains of tree plantation have to be removed. In this way, the tree plantation is included in the crop rotation. The main advantage of the system is that it produces a renewable energy source for local energy production, while significantly increasing soil quality as a leguminous species and subsequently biomass yields. The cultivation of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) for energy purposes is nowadays justifiable due to the promotion of the use or renewable energy to mitigate climate change. Due to its high energy density and good burning properties, it is easy to use after any preparation (crushing, compacting, baling). In areas with low yields, it is justifiable to replace the agricultural crops with black locust, and even achieve higher yields than with poplar. Due to the specificity of the species (strongly spiked) only fully mechanized technologies can be used.

Az agroerdészet egyik - nem szokványos - lehetősége a magas tőszámú energetikai faültetvények vetésforgóban való alkalmazása. Ilyen ültetvények létesítése ott indokolt, ahol az egyéb agrotechnológiák alkalmazása korlátozott, vagy speciális termékhasznosítási lehetőségekkel nagyobb árbevétel érhető el. Kis és közepes hozamú mezőgazdasági termőterületen gyors növekedésű fafajok (pl. nemesnyár vagy fehér akác) közepes-nagy hozammal termeszthetők, és a termelt dendromassza tüzelőberendezéshez jó bevétellel eladható vagy magáncélra hasznosítható. A termesztési terület a betakarítást követően sarjaztatott üzemmódban tovább hasznosítható, majd speciális technológia és technika alkalmazásával szántó művelésbe adjuk, azaz a faültetvényt vetésforgóba illesztjük. A technológia alkalmazását számos pozitívuma indokolja, ugyanakkor némi kockázatot is rejt magában. A rendszer fő előnye az, hogy megújuló energiahordozót állít elő lokális energiatermeléshez , ugyanakkor jelentősen javítja a talajminőséget és a területre vetített össz-biomassza hozamot. Magyarországon az akác (Robinia pseudoacacia) energetikai célú termesztése feltétlenül indokolt. Nagy energiasűrűsége és jó égési tulajdonságai miatt bármilyen előkészítés után (aprítás, tömörítés, bálázás) könnyen hasznosítható. Kis hozamú területeken indokolt, hogy a mezőgazdasági növényeket kiváltsuk vele, így a nemesnyárénál is nagyobb hozamot érhetünk el. A faj sajátossága (erősen tüskés) miatt csak a teljesen gépesített technológiák alkalmazhatók.

Tree hedges are very important elements of the French landscape, especially to maintain what is called the "bocage". However, since the 70s, tree hedges are seen as a liability and a cost rather than a resource. Hence, hedges are not well maintained, sometimes even pulled out. To keep these hedges healthy and managed, so that they can continue their ecological and agronomical services, it is crucial to turn them into economic resources. A serious lead for the valorisation of hedges products is the wood-fuel for individual or collective heating systems. With the increase of fuel prices, the wood-fuel appears now as a valuable energetic alternative. It can decrease cost of heating (1,5ct€/kWh against 15,9ct€/kWh with electricity or 5,1ct€/kWh with natural gas), create jobs in the region (3 or even 4 times more than gas or oil value chains) and also decrease CO2 emissions, especially because the woodchips are sourced locally cutting the transport. In Northern France, the Regional Natural Parc of Avesnois launched an initiative in 2012 to promote the installation of heating systems in the region, in partnership with an association that source and process woodchips (Atelier Agriculture Avesnois Thiérarche). Now, more than 88 individual and 24 collective heating systems have been installed, and more than 458 tons of woodchips have been delivered. This represents an equivalent of 700 households powered with the exploitation of 600km of hedges. To keep a good traceability of the woodchips and guarantee that they come from a sustainable management of hedges, a quality label is being analysed and put in place called "Wood coming from bocages with sustainable management" (Bois bocager géré durablement).

La haie est un élément primordial du paysage français, notamment pour conserver le paysage bocager. Pourtant, depuis les années 70, la haie est souvent perçue comme une charge économique plutôt qu'une ressource, ainsi les haies sont peu ou mal entretenues, voire même parfois arrachées. Afin de maintenir ces haies qui revêtent de nombreuses fonctions territoriales et agricoles, il est crucial de pouvoir les valoriser économiquement.. Une piste sérieuse de valorisation est l'utilisation en bois-énergie grâce à des chaufferies individuelles ou collectives. En effet, avec l'augmentation du prix des combustibles fossiles et fissiles, le bois-énergie apparait comme une alternative énergétique pertinente. Il permet de réaliser des économies (1,5ct€TTC/kWh contre 15,9ct€ pour l'électricité ou 5,1ct€/kWh pour le gaz naturel), de créer des emplois (3 à 4 fois plus que les filières gaz et pétrole) et de diminuer les émissions de CO2 notamment car les filières sont locales et le transport en est donc réduit. Dans le Nord de la France, le Parc Naturel Régional de l'Avesnois a lancé en 2012 une initiative pour favoriser l'implantation de chaufferies sur le territoire, en partenariat avec l'Atelier Agriculture Avesnois Thiérarche (AAAT). Aujourd'hui, plus de 88 chaudières et 24 chaufferies ont été mises en place et plus de 458 tonnes de plaquettes livrées. Cela représente un équivalent de plus de 700 logements alimentés en énergie grâce à la valorisation de 600km de haies. Afin de garder la traçabilité des plaquettes et la garantie qu'elles proviennent d'un entretien bien réalisé permettant une exploitation durable des haies, un label de qualité " Bois bocager géré durablement " est même étudié et mis en place par différentes structures.

Pollarding is a management approach that involves cutting the tree at the top of the trunk regularly to produce a crop such as tree fodder for livestock or wood for energy production. Pollarding became particularly prevalent in landscapes where the intensity of land use was very high, usually where grazing or cropping of the land was required as well as a tree product (for example elm and ash branches for livestock fodder), but the practice of pollarding is not commonly used today in UK agricultural systems. However, pollarding has a potential role to play in modern agroforestry by minimizing light competition, providing multiple products, and prolonging the life of the tree (Colin et al (2017). Before planting new trees, it is better to optimise the productivity of those that are already in the landscape. However, old pollards are also particularly important for biodiversity, as well as a characteristic part of some of our landscapes with high cultural and historic values. Therefore, re-introducing management for production needs to be sensitive to any potential impact on these other values. Lapsed pollards (i.e. where trees have not been cut regularly) need special care when bringing back into a management cycle. Rather than cutting back to the bole (tree trunk) a more gradual reduction is recommended, or, if the tree shape allows, some selected branches are cut and others left intact. The root system of pollards and associated mycorrhizal communities are extremely important for tree and soil health. When pollarding, a large proportion of the canopy is removed which has consequences for the roots too. Avoiding soil damaging activities such as soil cultivation, in particular around old pollards which are being reduced, is very important.

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Across much of Europe, hedgerows are an important part of our joint cultural heritage, covering a total of 1.78 million hectares in the EU (den Herder et al, 2016). However, many hedges are in decline due to over- and under-management. Hedgerow management activities for local energy or heat production as a way of supporting the rejuvenation of old hedges can restore not only their economic role but their value to the wider landscape. To be attractive to farmers, the management of hedges for bioenergy must be profitable. A cost:benefit analyses with the FarmSAFE model used data from hedgerow coppicing trials carried out on two farms in England. Costs associated with standard hedgerow management by trimming with a flail every two years were compared with hedgerows managed on a 15 year coppice rotation, using different scales of machinery (small = chainsaw; medium = tree shears; large = Bracke felling head), for a 60 year period. Income was generated from woodchip sales (£7.59/m3) and government grants for sensitive hedge management (£16/100m) and coppicing (£400/100m). The analyses showed that standard trimming of hedges with a flail every two years leads to a loss of £177 per 100m. Using a chainsaw for harvesting results in a similar loss of £176/100m. In contrast, managing by coppicing to produce woodfuel using medium and large scaled machinery was shown to be profitable, (tree shears = £357/100m; Bracke felling head = £219/100m). This demonstrates that it is possible to make hedgerows a profitable part of the farm business.

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This case study from south-west England demonstrates that it is economically viable to move a hedge from annual flailing to a fifteen-year coppice rotation to produce firewood. The farm is a 160 ha low intensity livestock farm in Dorset. It has 20 km of hedges managed on a 15-20 year coppice cycle. Approximately 800m of hedge is coppiced annually. The farm has a small firewood business which sells approximately 175 tonnes of logs per year, hedges make up part of this with the rest coming from hedge and tree management on neighbouring farms. Hedge coppicing produces round and split logs for the firewood business as well as small diameter material which is used on-farm or sold at a lower price and brash material which is fed through a branch logger, netted and sold as kindling. Around 70% of the total hedge biomass produced from coppicing is used or sold. All firewood products are stored undercover for 10 months to reduce moisture content to between 20% and 30% content prior to use or sale. The farmer, Ross Dickinson, was interested in the economics of the process and in 2017 coppiced a trial hedge and recorded in detail the time, costs, outputs and income. The mixed species hedge was 220m long, 6.5m high, 3m wide with 15 years re-growth since it was last coppiced. Before coppicing, an old wire fence within the hedge was removed by hand. The hedge was coppiced by hand using a chainsaw, processed with a log splitter and a branch logger producing 21.41 tonnes of saleable or useable firewood material. The overall cost including labour for hedge preparation, coppicing, processing, burning brash and delivery was £3,378. Total income including sales and savings from not flailing annually was £4,908. This means that the profit from 220m of hedge was £1530 with no subsidy payments.

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Many agroforestry systems produce woodchip, e.g. from thinning and pruning trees, as well as the primary product of short rotation coppice. Woodchip has many uses, including for bioenergy, mulching for weed control, turning into compost. It can also be used to provide an alternative bedding material to straw, particularly where straw is in short supply, and may offer many animal health and welfare benefits, with limited bacterial growth and less dust than straw. Chip needs to be dry (less than 25% moisture content) and, if produced on-farm, it should be dried undercover for 6 to 12 months before use. Woody species with thorns should be avoided (e.g. blackthorn, hawthorn), but most other seasoned hard and soft woods will work equally well as bedding, although larch should be avoided due to its tendency to splinter (AHDB, 2011 ). Using larger chips allows livestock excreta to pass through to lower layers, leaving the upper layers relatively dry and friable. A shallow 10cm depth of woodchip is recommended with a fresh top-up layer applied as required when the chip becomes too moist (typically every seven to ten days if animals are on a dry diet; more frequently if fed a silage-based ration) (AHDB, 2011). The used bedding material can be composted afterwards (heaped and turned every 4 to 6 weeks) and the resulting material sieved to separate coarse woodchips that may be re-used as bedding. The smaller fractions can be used as a fertilizer and spread on land or further composted.

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For some not very common field crops there are opportunities for production in alley cropping and forest farming systems. There interest in growing Finnish domestic hops. Local micro-breweries are interested in producing a truly local product. Even though most ingredients of locally produced beer are local, hops are always imported from abroad. The Finnish Natural Resource Institute has started a new project where they have collected about 1000 Finnish hop provenances, mostly from active and abandoned farms and gardens. Together with local breweries, LUKE is now investigating which provenances would be suitable for beer production. The most promising hop provenances are selected in growing experiments so that it would be possible to produce beer. Hops are usually grown in a field supported by wooden stalks. If the hops would be supported by trees or grown on the forest / field boundary, it could be a new agroforestry product. Stinging nettle fiber can be used as raw material for eco-textile. It can be produced in areas with a temperate wet climate and it can be a more environmental-friendly alternative compared to cotton, viscose, bamboo or artificial fabrics. Stinging nettle can also be used in vitamin C extracts and for direct consumption. Stinging nettle grows well together with alder. Alder can be used in wood-product manufacturing (furniture, window frames, clogs, toys). The tree can live for up to 160 years, but it is best felled for timber at 60 to 70 years before heart rot sets in. Alder can also be grown as coppice wood. Alder can be grown by itself or in mixed species plantations, and the nitrogen-rich leaves falling to the ground enrich the soil and increase the production of trees such as walnut, Douglas fir and poplar on poor quality soils.

Joidenkin harvinaisten viljelykasvien tuotanto voisi olla mahdollista peltometsäviljelyjärjestelmissä. Suomalaisen kotimaisen humalan kasvattamista kohtaan on kiinnostusta. Paikalliset pienpanimot ovat kiinnostuneita tuottamaan aidosti paikallista tuotetta. Vaikka useimmat paikallisesti tuotetun oluen ainesosat ovat paikallisia, humala tuodaan aina ulkomailta. Luonnonvarakeskus on käynnistänyt uuden projektin, jossa se on kerännyt noin 1000 suomalaista humalalajikketta, lähinnä maatiloilta ja puutarhoista. LUKE tutkii yhdessä panimojen kanssa, mitkä alkuperäiset lajikkeet olisivat sopivia oluen tuotantoon. Lupaavimmat humalan lajikkeet valitaan kasvukokeissa niin, että olutta olisi mahdollista valmistaa. Humalaa kasvatetaan yleensä puisten rimojen tukemana pellolla. Jos humalaa tuetaan puilla tai kasvatetaan metsän ja pellon rajalla, se voisi olla uusi agrometsätaloustuote. Nokkosen kuitua voidaan käyttää ekologisen tekstiilin raaka-aineena. Sitä voidaan tuottaa alueilla, joilla on lauhkea, kostea ilmasto, ja se voi olla ympäristöystävällisempi vaihtoehto kuin puuvilla, viskoosi, bambu tai tekokuidut. Nokkosta voidaan käyttää myös C-vitamiiniuutteissa ja suoraan kulutukseen. Nokkonen kasvaa hyvin yhdessä tervalepän kanssa. Leppää voidaan käyttää puutuotteiden valmistuksessa (huonekalut, ikkunakehykset, puukengät, lelut). Puu voi elää jopa 160 vuotta, mutta se on parasta korjata 60-70-vuotiaana ennen sydänlahon alkamista. Leppä voidaan kasvattaa joko yksin tai sekaistutusmetsissä, ja maahan tippuvat typpipitoiset lehdet rikastuttavat maaperää ja lisäävät puiden, kuten jalopähkinäpuun, douglaskuusen ja poppelin, kasvua huonolaatuisessa maaperässä.

In Finland, mainly sheep and cows are used in silvopastoral systems. However, there would be opportunities for using other grazers too, for example for enhancing biodiversity, offering opportunities for recreation and earning some additional farm income. For instance, free-range chicken exist in Finland but woodland chicken (free-range chicken with access to trees) are very rare. There would be an opportunity to increase woodland egg production. In the olden days, pigs were kept outside but nowadays almost all pig production has moved to indoor production. Here is an opportunity for sustainable meat production and improving animal well-being. Alpaca´s can be used on rural tourism and well-being farms, and goats for producing goat cheese. Ostrich farms for meat production were popular in the end of the 1990´s but nowadays this practice has almost disappeared. For more animals there would be opportunities to be used in agroforestry. The milk from water buffalo can be used for making special cheese; the most well-know is mozzarella cheese. Water buffalo's are very suitable as landscape grazers, also in more wet habitats such as shore meadows. Water buffalo's are not bothered by cold northern European conditions and they can stand temperatures as low as down to -30° C. Use of more diverse grazer communities can enhance landscape and farm diversity and make farms more resilient to climate change and market fluctuations. In addition, use of more diverse grazers may provide additional farm income.

Suomessa metsälaiduntamisessa käytetään pääasiassa lampaita ja lehmiä. Myös muita karjanlajeja voitaisiin käyttää esimerkiksi biologisen monimuotoisuuden parantamiseksi, virkistysmahdollisuuksien tarjoamiseksi ja lisätuotannon tuottamiseksi. Suomessa on esimerkiksi ulkokanoja, mutta on hyvin harvinaista, että ulkokanoilla on pääsy puihin tai metsään. Ulkokanojen munien tuotannon lisääminen olisi mahdollista. Ennen vanhaan sikoja pidettiin ulkona, mutta nykyään lähes kaikki siantuotanto on siirtynyt sisätiloihin. Tässä on mahdollisuus kestävään lihantuotantoon ja eläinten hyvinvoinnin parantamiseen. Alpakoita voidaan käyttää maaseutumatkailussa sekä hyvinvointitiloilla ja vuohia vuohenjuustoa tuottavilla tiloilla. Strutsifarmit lihantuotantoa varten olivat suosittuja 1990-luvun lopulla, mutta nykyään tämä käytäntö on lähes kadonnut. Agrometsätaloudessa olisi mahdollisuuksia käyttää lisää eläimiä. Vesipuhvelin maitoa voidaan käyttää erikoisjuustojen valmistukseen, joista tunnetuin on mozzarellajuusto. Vesipuhvelit soveltuvat hyvin maisemalaiduntajiksi, myös kosteisiin elinympäristöihin, kuten rantaniityille. Kylmät pohjoismaiset olosuhteet eivät haittaa vesipuhvelia, ja ne pärjäävät vielä lähes 30 asteen pakkasissa. Monipuolisempi karjanlajien käyttö voi parantaa maiseman ja maatilojen monimuotoisuutta ja edistää tilojen kestävyyttä ilmastonmuutoksen ja markkinavaihtelujen suhteen. Lisäksi monipuolisempien laiduntajien käyttö voi antaa lisätuloja maatilalle.

In Finnish Lapland, rural tourism is well developed. It has an annual turnover of about 500-600 million euros providing employment to about 5000 persons. There would be plenty of opportunities for rural tourism in other parts of Finland too. The "herder holiday" has proven to be a very successful format. It gives people the chance to spend a holiday on a real farm and do some real farm work during the holiday. Many people claim they come back from their holiday as a different person. They are more relaxed, or they can even change their values what really matters in life. During the holiday they get certain duties in taking care of the animals and most people will carry out these duties very exactly. In this type of holiday there is of course also the possibility to enjoy, spend free time and time with the family and outdoor activities (hiking, canoeing, cycling). GreenCare is similar but more for therapy or groups of elderly people. An "adventure holiday" is also similar but more tailored for school kids or other groups of kids. Rural tourism goes together very well with traditional farms (agroforestry landscapes, e.g. wood pastures), traditional rural areas and/or traditional livestock breeds.. However, running a rural tourism farm doesn't fit everyone. It fits for farmers with social skills for working with groups and who enjoy working with a lot of other people. The same concept could be applied in other countries too. In this type of farming system, the farm probably gets less income from the normal farming activities and most income will come from tourist activities (rent of cottages, meals, organizing activities). Environmental payments (e.g. payments for management of key biotopes or rural landscapes) continue in the normal way.

Sen liikevaihto on noin 500-600 miljoonaa euroa ja se työllistää noin 5000 henkilöä. Myös muualla Suomessa olisi paljon maaseutumatkailun mahdollisuuksia. "Paimenloma" on osoittautunut erittäin onnistuneeksi konseptiksi. Se antaa ihmisille mahdollisuuden viettää lomaa aidolla maatilalla ja tehdä aitoa maataloustyötä lomansa aikana. Monet väittävät, että he palaavat lomaltaan eri ihmisinä. He ovat rennompia, tai he voivat jopa muuttaa arvojaan siitä, mikä todella on tärkeää elämässä. Loman aikana he saavat tiettyjä tehtäviä eläinten hoidossa ja useimmat hoitavat nämä tehtävät hyvin tarkasti. Tämäntyyppisen loman aikana annetaan tietysti myös aikaa nauttia ja viettää vapaa-aikaa sekä aikaa perheen ja ulkoiluaktiviteettien parissa (vaellus, melonta, pyöräily). GreenCare on samanlainen konsepti, mutta se keskittyy esimerkiksi vanhusten tai muiden ihmisryhmien hoivaan. ""Seikkailuloma"" on myös samantyyppinen, mutta suunnattu erityisesti koululaisille tai muille lapsiryhmille. Maaseutumatkailu sopii hyvin perinteisille tiloille, perinteisille maaseutualueille (esim. luonnonlaitumet) ja/tai perinteisille karjaroduille. Maaseutumatkailutilan hoitaminen ei kuitenkaan sovi kaikille. Se sopii viljelijöille, joilla on sosiaalisia taitoja ryhmien kanssa työskentelyyn ja jotka nauttivat työskentelystä muiden ihmisten parissa. Samaa konseptia voitaisiin soveltaa myös muissa maissa. Tämäntyyppisessä viljelyjärjestelmässä tila saa todennäköisesti vähemmän tuloja tavanomaisesta viljelytoiminnasta, ja suurin osa tuloista tulee matkailutoiminnasta (mökkien vuokraus, ateriat, aktiviteetit). Maaseutumatkailu ei vaikuta ympäristötuen maksuihin ja ne jatkuvat samalla tavalla.

When establishing agroforestry plots, quite often a combination with high standard fruit trees is chosen again these days. The economic added value of these trees in that case is the wood production but the added value the fruits can offer. The harvested fruit is often processed into fruit juice, cider, syrup, wine, jelly, jam ... The freshly picked fruit of many traditional varieties can, together with the processed products, be sold as a farm product. Certainly in the bio segment there are opportunities for this way of working. Various factors play a role in making the most suitable species and variety choice when establishing a new agroforestry plot with fruit trees: (1) The benefits of more diversity (biodiversity and genetic diversity; (2) The economic added value of the future harvest of these fruit trees. This is largely determined by how the farmer intends to market the fruit or processed products; (3) The present conditions of soil and microclimate, which help to determine which types of fruit you should or should not plant on the plot; (4) The individual properties of the different varieties (taste, picking time, properties for storage, processing, resistances, etc.); (5) The spread in the picking and consumption season according to the objectives of the harvested fruit; (6) The mutual (necessary) cross-pollination. When you have to make a choice between different, equivalent varieties, it is best to opt for regional varieties.

Bij de aanleg van agroforestrypercelen wordt regelmatig opnieuw gekozen voor een teeltcombinatie met hoogstamfruitbomen. De oogst van hoogstamfruitbomen wordt dikwijls verwerkt tot vruchtensap, cider, stroop, wijn, gelei, confituur… Het vers geplukte fruit van heel wat traditionele variëteiten kan, samen met de verwerkte producten, verkocht worden als hoeveproduct. Zeker in het biosegment zijn hiervoor wel afzetmogelijkheden. Bij het maken van de meest geschikte soorten- en variëteitenkeuze voor een nieuw agroforestryperceel, spelen verschillende factoren een rol: (1) De voordelen van meer diversiteit (biodiversiteit en genetische diversiteit); (2) De economische meerwaarde van de toekomstige oogst van de hoogstamfruitbomen. Dit wordt voor een groot deel bepaald door hoe het individuele bedrijf voorziet om de vruchten of verwerkte producten te vermarkten; (3) De aanwezige omstandigheden van bodem en microklimaat, die mee bepalen welke fruitsoorten je best wel of niet plant op het in te planten perceel; (4) De individuele eigenschappen van de verschillende variëteiten (smaak, pluktijdstip, eigenschappen voor bewaring, verwerking, resistenties…); (5) De spreiding in het pluk- en verbruiksseizoen al naargelang de doelstellingen met het geoogste fruit; (6) De onderlinge (noodzakelijke) kruisbestuiving. Wanneer je een keuze moet maken tussen verschillende, gelijkwaardige variëteiten, kan je best kiezen voor streekeigen variëteiten.

Walnut trees have become a popular choice for agroforestry systems. Variety choice is usually based on nut quality and quantity. The importance of budding, blooming and leafing period in temperate climates is often overlooked. Until 15th May, spring night frost is not unusual in Flanders. Bud breaking and blooming of commonly used cultivars in France occurs before half May and bud growth of nearly all commonly used cultivars used in Belgium (Broadview, Buccaneer, Coenen, Rita, NO.16, Plovdivski, Proslavski, Axel, Hansen,…) starts before the risk of frost is gone. In Flanders, substantial losses are expected once every 2 years when using very early cultivars (March), once every 4 year using early cultivars (April), once every 10 years using middle cultivars (April – May) and once every 15 years using late developing (half May) cultivars. With very late cultivars (late May – early June) this risk is reduced to zero, allowing a more consistent nut production throughout the years. A late leafing period is also beneficial in alley cropping as intercrops, like winter wheat, get a maximum of light during most of their growth period. Dryer growing conditions could also make the intercrops less vulnerable to fungal diseases. First observations also indicate that the late budding walnut varieties are less vulnerable to walnut blight and chestnut weevils. Very late varieties are relatively rare. About 2% of seedlings fall into this category. Optimal growing conditions and management are crucial for these varieties due to the short growing season. Knowledge on their characteristics is however still limited and they are not yet commercially available. Research on this topic is initiated in Belgium by local walnut experts cooperating with researchers.

Walnoten zijn populair in agroforestry systemen. Variëteitenkeuze is veelal gebaseerd op notenkwaliteit en -kwantiteit. De periode van uitlopen, bloei en bladvorming wordt vaak over het hoofd gezien in gematigde streken. Tot 15 mei is nachtvorst niet ongewoon in Vlaanderen. Courante Franse variëteiten bloeien voor half mei en ook de knoppen van alle in België gebruikte variëteiten (Broadview, Buccaneer, Coenen, Rita, NO.16, Plovdivski, Proslavski, Axel, Hansen,…) lopen uit vóór het risico op nachtvorst is verdwenen. In Vlaanderen verwachten we daarom substantiële oogstverliezen eens per 2 jaar bij zeer vroege variëteiten (maart), eens per 4 jaar bij vroege variëteiten (april), eens per 10 jaar bij middeltijdse variëteiten (april – mei) en eens per 15 jaar bij het gebruik van late variëteiten (half mei). Bij zeer laat uitlopende variëteiten (eind mei – begin juni) is dit risico nagenoeg onbestaande, wat een meer continue productie van noten toelaat. Laat in blad komen heeft ook voordelen in alley cropping aangezien tussengewassen, zoals wintergranen, maximaal licht capteren tijdens hun groeiperiode. Drogere groeicondities zouden de gewassen ook minder gevoelig maken voor schimmelziektes. Eerste observaties wijzen op een betere resistentie van laat uitlopende walnoten tegen bacteriebrand en bladsnuitkevers. Laat uitlopende variëteiten zijn relatief zeldzaam. Zo’n 2% van de zaailingen valt in deze categorie. Optimale groeicondities en een goed beheer zijn bij deze variëteiten cruciaal gezien de korte groeiperiode. Kennis over hun eigenschappen is beperkt en ze zijn nog niet commercieel beschikbaar. Diepgaander onderzoek werd recent opgestart in Vlaanderen door notenexperten in samenwerking met onderzoekers.

Knowledge transfer is one of the key axes for enhancing the transition and adoption of new practices such as agroforestry. In France, some trainings about agroecology and agroforestry are solely constituted of lectures and academical approaches, with few on the field involvement. This way of learning can be reinforced by the inclusion of practice learning to develop a holistic understanding of complex subjects that integrates the combination of multiple species, one of them a woody perennial. This will lead to logics that integrate crucial points for agroforestry development such as the farmer's reality or the interactions between species and their management into an agroforestry plot. To farmer facilitate learning, more integrated trainings are now organized in France. These trainings are generally divided in three sections: on-line courses with audio lessons including bibliography, lectures and field visits, mostly at farmers' places already using agroforestry practices. This teaching process not only complete the academic one with hands-on skills but also stimulate the participants and allows to create and reinforce the technical and social links inside a group of actors (farmers, technicians, researchers, public institutions…). These field visits are also a good opportunity for wide communication and can attract a large range of participants. One of the objectives behind these new teaching trends is also to set the farmer at the centre of the reflection as an essential part to foster transition from conventional to a more sustainable land use systems such as agroforestry: promoting dialogue among farmers, creating partnerships with research institutes and universities.

Enseigner, et diffuser les connaissances set les bonnes pratiques est un des axes clefs pour le développement de techniques innovantes comme l'agroforesterie. En France, certaines formations sur l'agroécologie et l'agroforesterie sont uniquement constituées de conférences et de cours magistraux, avec peu de sorties sur le terrain. Cette méthode d'enseignement ne permet pas aux participants de ces formations de développer une vision holistique des problématiques complexes de l'agriculture. Elle peut même mener à la mise en place de logiques inutiles car en dehors de la réalité du terrain, en particulier pour un sujet délicat comme l'agroforesterie où il faut prendre en compte les limitations de l'agriculteurs et les relations entre les espèces. Pour compenser ce manque, des formations mixtes sont maintenant organisées. Ces formations sont généralement divisées en 3 parties : cours digitaux et bibliographie, conférences présentielles et cours pratiques chez des agriculteurs. Cette approche non seulement complète la vision académique en procurant des compétences pratiques mais elle permet aussi de stimuler les participants, et de créer un réseau d'acteurs maintenu par des liens technique set sociaux (agriculteurs, techniciens, chercheurs, instituts…). Ces formation et journées " à la ferme " sont aussi une bonne opportunité pour la communication grand public, et peut attirer différents profils de participants. Un des autres objectifs de cette nouvelle méthode d'apprentissage est aussi de remettre l'agriculteur au centre de la réflexion : stimulant le dialogue entre agriculteurs, créant des partenariats avec le monde de la recherche et leur donnant plus de visibilité médiatique.

In most France landscapes, tree hedges are seen as an element that needs to be managed to enhance the beauty of the surroundings, which means important costs for the farmers or community. However, it can also become a useful resource for many livestock breeders to improve beddings into their stables. Hay is the traditional bedding in France, and it leads to a heavy dependence for farmers since its cost is very fluctuant depending on availability. Compensate, or even replace it by a local resource such as hedge woodchips can be full of advantages: Woodchips are way more absorbent (1 ton can absorb 1400L of urine), draining and efficient for bedding compared to hay. Its bearing capacity is optimal for cows and it allows better sanitary conditions (cleaner livestock, less smell, less flies…). Farmers can either install a 100% woodchip bedding with a 10 to 25cm layer, or mix it with hay. One of the keys is to foster agroforestry is to improve the economic return of the woody perennials to build a value-chain and scale-up woodchip processing. In France, a cooperative was set up in the department of Nièvre in 2014 to process 3,3 tons of woodchips (50% humidity) at 60€/ton. In this case, using hay or woodchips was the same cost for breeders, but according to them, it brings reliability of the hay resource and stability of the price and above all a mechanism of resilience when hay prices are increased.

Dans la plupart des villages français, les haies sont vues comme un élément du paysage qui a besoin d'être entretenu pour améliorer l'esthétisme du lieu. Elles sont donc perçues comme un coût. Cependant, elles peuvent très bien produire des ressources utiles pour les éleveurs pour améliorer la litière de leurs étables. On utilise le plus fréquemment de la paille pour cela en France, mais cela entraîne une forte dépendance et le coût de la paille subit récemment de fortes variations de prix et de disponibilité. Compenser, voire même remplacer la paille par des plaquettes de bois sourcées localement peut apporter de nombreux bénéfices : les plaquettes ont une plus forte capacité d'absorption (1 tonne peut absorber 1400 litres d'urine), de drainage et de, façon générale, d'efficacité pour la litière comparé à la paille. Sa portance est parfaite pour les bovins, et une litière en bois plaquette permet de meilleures conditions sanitaires (animaux plus propres, odeur moins forte, moins de mouches…). On peut soit installer une litière constituée à 100% de plaquettes avec une épaisseur de 10 à 25cm, ou alors mixer avec de la paille. Une des clefs pour développer cette pratique et de constituer et renforcer les filières de valorisation afin de diminuer les coûts de broyage. En France, une coopérative a été montée dans le département de la Nièvre en 2014 afin de produire 3,3 tonnes de copeaux (avec 50% d'humidité) à 60€/tonne. Dans ce cas-ci, le coût de la litière bois fut la même qu'une litière classique à base de paille, mais d'après les éleveurs, utiliser des plaquettes permet une meilleure fiabilité de la ressource et une stabilité du prix.

The SMART project in France identified 130 farms using agroforestry systems for vegetable production and followed standardized technical and economic indicators on 22 of these farms from the year 2014 to 2017. The objective was to understand why these innovating farmers created these systems, how did they think their design, and evaluate their performance on various indicators (satisfaction, investment, workload, revenues, biodiversity, yields…). The size of the 16 farms is generally small and only constituted of the agroforestry plot's of around 0,5 hectare. The designs used are based on rows of fruit trees with vegetables between the rows, with hedges circling the plot. Spacing between the tree rows was 8 meters up to 20 meters. Crop diversification does not lead to a significant increase in the workload, however due to complexity in the day-to-day management, thoughtful priorities at system level are necessary. Work drudgery and negative effects of climate are reduced by the inclusion of complementary trees and crop varieties. Tree rows positioned with an adequate width is important for cultivating and harvesting different crops. In the SMART study only 19% of farmers considered their income as "sufficient", however this low figure mainly comes from the fact that most systems studied were still quite new: 50% had been planted less than 3 years before, and were therefore still not fully productive. It is also difficult to quantify the real value of the additional environmental services that these systems provide to human, soil heath and biodiversity. Crop diversification is seen as a great commercialization advantage. Overall, the great majority of the farmers surveyed (more than 70%) would recommend association of fruits and vegetables.

Le projet SMART a identifié en France plus de 130 agriculteurs travaillant avec des systèmes pionniers de vergers-maraichers et a suivi leurs performances de 2014 à 2017. Les objectifs principaux de ce projet étaient de savoir quelles étaient les motivations des agriculteurs pour implanter un tel système, en évaluer les performances selon divers indicateurs (satisfaction de l’agriculteur, besoin d’investissement, charge de travail, biodiversité, rendements…). Les résultats du 16 projetD montrent que les vergers-maraichers sont généralement de petite taille (0,5 hectare en moyenne) et le design est basé sur des lignes de fruitiers avec des planches de maraîchage entre les lignes, et des haies entourant le tout. L’espacement entre les lignes de fruitiers va de 8 à 20 mètres. La diversification des productions n'entraine pas d’augmentation critique de la charge de travail mais implique par contre une plus grande complexité de gestion, et la nécessité d'établir des priorités. La pénibilité du travail est réduite grâce à l'ombre fournie par les arbres et la proximité dans l'espace des différentes cultures (moins de déplacement lors des récoltes). Dans l'étude SMART, seulement 19% des agriculteurs considéraient leurs revenus comme « suffisants » mais cette faible proportion venait principalement de la jeunesse des systèmes étudiés : 50% avaient moins de 3 ans au moment de l’étude et n'étaient pas encore pleinement entrés en production. La diversification est perçue comme un grand avantage en ce qui concerne la distribution. De façon générale, la grande majorité des agriculteurs interrogés (plus de 70%) recommanderaient le système de verger-maraicher.

Shrubs can be placed as part of the hedges or hedgerows in silvoarable areas or in the plots as part of feed. Management of the shrub hedges is time consuming but helps to reduce the effect of winds on croplands while delivering products usually biomass that can be used as fuel for heating. Some animals consume the shrubs during shortage periods contributing to increase the resilience of farming systems. Shrubs are also a source of nutrients for the soil. In Galicia, legume shrubs were traditionally sown to increase the soil fertility and after as a fertilizers. The most used legume species was Ulex europaeus with a productivity that can be over 100 Mg DM ha-1 after 8 years. The plants were harvested and used as animal bedding that enriched with their faeces and urine the quality of the shrubs, reducing the C/N and therefore improving the release of nutrients when applied to arable lands. The production was called "trigo limpio" or "clean wheat" due to the lack of weeds that the wheat has in the first wheat harvest after the shrub was harvested. The lack of weeds could be associated either to the soil generated by the shrub in the area that buried the weed seeds in deep soil layers that make these seeds unable to germinate or to the alleophatic compounds that the shrub left into the soil after the shrub was harvested. The use of Ulex europaeus as a source of nutrients was extended in the region before the fertilizers appeared in the modern agriculture, meaning that 33% of the Galicia land was occupied by Ulex europaeus (1 million hectares). Nowadays, the good nitrogen content of legume shrubs could be used as part of the compost, usually poor in this element. Likewise the tree species, shrubs can be a source for textile, biomass and bioplastics, among other uses.

Los arbustos pueden estar localizados como setos o en el medio de las parcelas como forraje. La gestión de los setos consume tiempo pero ayuda a la reducción del efecto del viento en a la vez que proporcionan biomasa que puede ser empleada como combustible. Algunos animales pueden también consumir los arbustos durante los períodos de falta de pasto. Los arbustos pueden ser también empleados como fuente de nutrientes en el suelo. En Galicia, los arbustos se sembraban tradicionalmente para aumentar la fertilidad del suelo. La especie leguminosa más empleada fue Ulex europaeus con una productividad que puede estar por encima de los 100 MS ha-1 después de 8 años. El Ulex se empleaba como cama de ganado que era enriquecido con heces y orina, reduciendo la relación C/N y aumentando la liberación de nutrientes al abonar. El área donde el arbusto leguminoso se había sembrado era sembrada con cereales tras la cosecha del arbusto produciendo "trigo limpio" debido a la ausencia de malas hierbas. La ausencia de malas hierbas podría estar asociada tanto por el enterrado de las semillas de las malas hierbas en las capas de suelo más profundas que las hacía incapaces de germinar o por los compuestos alelopáticos que dejaban los arbustos. El uso de Ulex europaeus como fuente de nutrientes estaba extendido en la región antes de que aparecieran los fertilizantes, lo que implicó que cerca del 33% del territorio de Galicia estaba ocupado por Ulex europaeus (1 millón de hectáreas). Hoy en día, el contenido en nitrógeno de los arbustos leguminosos podría ser empleado como parte del compost, generalmente pobre en este elemento. De igual manera que los árboles, los arbustos pueden ser una fuente de fibras para la producción de material textil, biomasa o bioplásticos, entre otros usos.

The use of this woody biomass could be one of the main reasons to include all the benefits of agroforestry in agricultural plots linked to the bioeconomy concept described by the Global Bioeconomy Summit in 2015: "the knowledge-based" production and utilization of biological resources, innovative biological processes and principles to sustainably provide goods and services across all economic sectors". The current broadly use of the trees, timber, pulp and paper should be expanded to other uses such as textiles, bioplastics chemicals, among others. The textile use could be linked to the production of viscose fibers associated with the tree cellulose component that will probably replace non-renewable source of fibers such as Polyester or cotton that represents the 55 and 27% of the global consumption fibres in 2015. Tree-based bioplastics production and use should be increased to replace non-biodegradable plastics by extracting organic chemicals from lignin for their manufacture. Tree-derived chemicals to be used in different types of industries such as flavanoids, terpenes phenols, alkaloids, sterols, waxes, fats, tannins, sugars, gums, suberins, resin acides and carotenoids are among the most used compounds from woody perennials associated to the development of pharmaceutical, cdhesive and preservatives compounds. So, the tree-based product potential is clearly there but a strong agriculture infrastructure support should be developed to firstly increase the production of these compounds and secondly to develop a market and sustainable value chain that makes the introduction of trees in agricultural lands a profitable source of income for farmers.

El empleo de la biomasa leñosa podria ser una de las principales razones para incluir la agroforestería en las parcelas agrícolas asociadas a la bioeconomía (Global Bioeconomy Summit en 2015): "la producción basada en el conocimiento y utilización de recursos biológicos, procesos biológicos innovadores y principios que proporcionen bienes y servicios sostenibles a través de todos los sectores económicos". El uso más importante de los árboles en la actualidad son la madera, la pulpa y el papel que debería expandirse a otros usos como los textiles, bioplásticos y como fuente de sustancias químicas de múltiple uso. El uso textil puede asociarse a la producción de fibras de viscosa asociadas al árbol que podria reemplazar fuentes de fibras no renovables como el Poliester o el algodón, que en el año 2015 representaron el 55 y el 27% del consumo global de fibras. La producción y uso de bioplásticos debe incrementarse para reemplazar plásticos no-biodegradables mediante la extración de compuestos orgánicos a partir de la lignina. Por otra parte, diferentes compuestos químicos procedentes de los árboles como flavanoides, terpenos fenoles, alcaloides, esteroles, ceras, grasas, taninos, azúcares, gomas, suberinas, resinas y carotenoides están vinculados a la industria farmaceútica, de adhesivos y de materiales conservantes. Por lo tanto, el potencial de empleo de usos alternativos de los árboles es claro, pero se deben desarrollar Fuertes infraestructuras agrícolas que permitan en primer lugar aumentar la producción de estos compuestos y en Segundo lugar el desarrollo de mercados y cadenzas de valor sostenibles que haga la introducción de los árboles en terrenos agrícolas como una fuente rentable de renta para agricultores.

The European Union developed a biodiversity strategy based on six main targets (EC 2011a) and some of them can be fulfilled by agroforestry: (1) development of a network of natural habitats, (2) ecosystem services restoration based on the development of a green infrastructure and (3) ensuring sustainability of agriculture and forestry activities but also (6) stepping up the EU's contribution to concerted global action to avert biodiversity loss. The first target of the EU biodiversity aims at protecting species and habitats by the EU nature law and should be carried out by showing better conservation or a secure status for 100 % more habitats and 50 % more species by year 2020. Due to the important rule that woody perennials and therefore, agroforestry have to play in the biodiversity promotion around Europe, this monitoring should specifically look at the presence of agroforestry practices in the Europe landscape. A comparison between the map of the HNV farmland presence in Europe (EEA 2012) and the map of the area located to silvopastoralism reveals that most of them are located in the Mediterranean area of Europe, highlighting that most of the HNV farmland are managed following the agroforestry principles.

La Unión Europea desarrolló una estrategia de biodiversidad basada en seis objetivos principales (CE 2011a) y algunos de ellos pueden ser cumplidos por la agroforestería: (1) desarrollo de una red de hábitats naturales, (2) restauración de los servicios de los ecosistemas basada en el desarrollo de un verde infraestructura y (3) garantizar la sostenibilidad de las actividades agrícolas y forestales, pero también (6) aumentar la contribución de la UE a una acción mundial concertada para evitar la pérdida de biodiversidad. El primer objetivo de la biodiversidad de la UE apunta a proteger las especies y los hábitats por la ley de la naturaleza de la UE y debe llevarse a cabo mostrando una mejor conservación o un estado seguro para un 100% más de hábitats y un 50% más de especies para el año 2020. Debido al importante papel que las plantas perennes leñosas y, por lo tanto, la agroforestería debe desempeñar en la promoción de la biodiversidad en Europa, esta evaluación debe analizar específicamente la presencia de prácticas agroforestales en el panorama europeo. Una comparación entre el mapa de la presencia de tierras de cultivo de Alto Valor Natural en Europa (EEE 2012) y el mapa del área ubicada en silvopastoralismo revela que la mayoría de éstos se encuentran en el área mediterránea de Europa, destacando que la mayoría de las tierras de cultivo de Alto Valor Natural se manejan siguiendo el principios agroforestales.

One of the current problems of silvopasture is the lack of economic viability due to the high variable costs (the Celtic pig is a slow-growing animal), mainly labor, which makes it necessary to establish a system composed of modular facilities (easy assembly) and autonomous (automatic feeding programming) and with an alarm system that warns lacks of water and electricity supply and allows surveillance through the web or mobile. The system is maintained through the use of renewable energies. The programming allows pigs feeding in the area of pinus forest and based on the conditioned animal reflex. The system is integrated into an outer fenced area of 15-20 hectares and includes an inner fenced area for stabling, feeding and capture of livestock in semi-freedom. The inner fenced area has an automated opening gate for entry and exit animals, and a conventional door for staff, with feeders linked to an automated container circuit that supplies the feed from a silo. The system for opening the gate and feeding is controlled by an automated program that, in addition to turn on the motors, manages a photoelectric sensor and a warning horn. The electrical power supply of programmable motors is made by electrical energy produced by photovoltaic solar panels connected to a photovoltaic controller and to batteries. The outer closure of the grazing area is done with an electric mesh of 90 cm in height, which is attached to two smooth wires, which are placed, one of them at ground level and the other at a height of 110 cm, which hold the mesh.

Uno de los problemas actuales de los sistemas extensivos es su falta de viabilidad económica debido a los elevados costes variables (el cerdo celta es un animal de crecimiento lento), principalmente mano de obra, lo que hace necesario establecer un sistema compuesto por instalaciones modulares (fácil montaje) y autónomos (programación automática de comidas) y con un sistema de alarma que advierte sobre los fallos en el sistema de suministro de electricidad y agua y permite una vigilancia accesible vía web o móvil. El sistema se mantiene mediante el empleo de energías renovables. La programación permite alimentar a ganado porcino en el monte basado en el reflejo animal condicionado. El sistema se integra en una zona de 15-20 hectáreas cercada e incluye un recinto para el estabulado, cebado y captura de ganado en semi-libertad y comprende una cerca con una compuerta de apertura automatizada para entrada y salida dos animales, y puerta convencional para el personal con comederos vinculados a un circuito automatizado de sinfín que aporta el pienso desde un silo. El sistema de apertura de la compuerta y de suministro de pienso a los comederos está controlado mediante un programa automatizado que además de accionar los motores gestiona un sensor fotoeléctrico y una bocina de aviso. La alimentación eléctrica de motores programable se realiza mediante energía eléctrica producida por paneles solares fotovoltaicos conectados a un controlador fotovoltaico y a baterías de acumulación. El cierre exterior de la zona de pastoreo se realiza con una malla eléctrica de 90 cm de altura, que se sujeta a dos alambres lisos, que se colocan, uno de ellos a ras del suelo y el otro a una altura de 110 cm, que sujeta la malla.

Silvopasture is an adequate land management system for Galicia as it reduces fire risk, improves silviculture practices, increases land rent and promotes rural population estabilisation. Forest shrubs understory grazing at adequate stocking rates reduces forest fires as a replacement of shrubs by herbaceous vegetation is caused, which has less fuel accumulation under the tree. The herbaceous understory favors silviculture practices as pruning and thinning can be more easily carried out with herbaceous understory than with shrub understory. Understory grazing also increases economic land return as animal products can be sold and usually faeces deposition of some animals can subsequently increase mushroom production. Forage value of the shrubs should be carefully considered, being the protein content, one of the most important indicators of forage quality, besides palatability and digestibility. Most important shrub species in Galicia are gorse (Ulex sp), representing around 73.47% followed by species of genus Erica ( Erica cinerea 29.98% and Erica arborea 16.43%) and Cytisus sp. which accounts around 18.28% of shrubby vegetation of Galicia. Other species such as Chamaespartium are also present. Knowledge of protein content and its seasonal distribution of most important shrub species in different areas will allow us to know their quality as feed for livestock. Protein content was around 8.9% for Cytisus sp, 6% for Erica sp and 9% for Ulex sp in Taboada and 16%, 8%, 11% for these species in A Fonsagrada, respectively. All species have a higher level of protein content in the autumn, with lower levels in winter.

El silvopastoreo es un sistema adecuado de gestión de la tierra para Galicia, ya que reduce el riesgo de incendios, mejora las prácticas de silvicultura, aumenta la rentabilidad y estabiliza la población rural. El pastoreo de los arbustos del sotobosque con cargas ganaderas adecuadas reduce los incendios forestales, al reemplazarse los arbustos por vegetación herbácea, cpm menor carga combustible. Las podas y las claras se pueden realizar más fácilmente con un sotobosque herbáceo que con uno arbustivo. El silvopastoreo también aumenta el retorno económico de la tierra, ya que los productos animales pueden venderse y, por lo general, la deposición de heces de algunos animales puede aumentar posteriormente la producción de hongos. El valor forrajero de los arbustos se debe considerar cuidadosamente, siendo el contenido en proteína uno de los indicadores más importantes de la calidad del forraje, junto a la palatabilidad y la digestibilidad. Las especies de arbustos más importantes de Galicia son el tojo (Ulex sp), con cerca del 73,47%, seguido por la Erica (Erica cinerea 29,98% y Erica arborea 16,43%) y Cytisus spp, que representa alrededor del 18,28% de la vegetación arbustiva de Galicia. Otras especies como Chamaespartium también están presentes. El conocimiento del contenido en proteína y su distribución estacional de las especies de arbustos más importantes en diferentes áreas nos permitirá conocer su calidad como alimento para el ganado. El contenido de proteína fue de alrededor de 8.9% para Cytisus sp, 6% para Erica sp y 9% para Ulex sp en Taboada y 16%, 8%, 11% para estas especies en A Fonsagrada, respectivamente. Todas las especies tienen un mayor nivel de contenido de proteína en el otoño, con niveles más bajos en invierno.

Forest fires are one of the most important hazards of forestlands in Galicia and North of Portugal. The main reason of these areas is the high potential that forest understory has to grow during the spring period that allows vegetation to be accumulated year after year, that could be subsequently fired when high temperature, low air humidity and high wind speed increases the risk of fires. Approximately every ten years large fires take place and affect thousands of hectares that happen in a very short period of time (some days) and that may cause tens of died people like in Portugal last summer 2017. The reduction of the vegetation that acts as a fuel is one of the main forms to reduce the forest fire risk. Clearing of forests can be carried out through the use of machinery, but it is costly as these areas are associated to high steeps and trees are too dense and not homogeneously distributed. Agroforestry is one of the main solutions to reduce the fire risk in these areas, as the understory that otherwise is a waste is used as a valuable resource for animal production. Galicia has over 1.7 millions of hectares of forest lands that can use understory as a resource. Economic evaluation has demonstrated that clearing with animals is ten times cheaper than using mechanical operations.

Los incendios forestales son uno de los riesgos más importantes de las tierras forestales en Galicia y el norte de Portugal. La razón principal de estas áreas es el alto potencial que tiene el sotobosque para crecer durante el período de primavera, que permite que la vegetación se acumule año tras año, que podría ser quemada posteriormente cuando las altas temperaturas, la baja humedad del aire y la alta velocidad del viento aumentan el riesgo de incendios. Aproximadamente cada diez años suceden grandes incendios que afectan a miles de hectáreas, que ocurren en un período muy corto de tiempo (algunos días) y que pueden causar la muerte de decenas de personas como en Portugal en el verano de 2017. La reducción de la vegetación que actúa como combustible es una de las principales formas de reducir el riesgo de incendios forestales. El desbroce del sotobosque puede llevarse a cabo mediante el uso de maquinaria, pero es costoso ya que estas áreas están asociadas a grandes pendientes y los árboles están demasiado densos y no están distribuidos de forma homogénea. La agroforestería es una de las principales soluciones para reducir el riesgo de incendio en estas áreas, ya que el sotobosque que de lo contrario es un residuo se utiliza como un recurso valioso para la producción animal. Galicia tiene más de 1.7 millones de hectáreas de tierras forestales que pueden usar el sotobosque como recurso. La evaluación económica ha demostrado que limpiar con animales es diez veces más barato que usar operaciones mecánicas.

The medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) are a resource highly demanded at present, since to the typical uses of the medicinal and aromatic plants (in pharmacy, herbal medicine, condiments, perfumery, alcoholic beverages) were expanded between end of 1990 and early 2000 to new ones that increasingly have a greater weight in the global estimation of the use of this type of goods. The global average of imports each year exceeds 400,000 tons of medicinal and aromatic plants. The world market is estimated at 83,000 million dollars, of which 53% would correspond to the pharmaceutical industry, 17% to dermocosmetic products, another 17% to food and the remaining 13% to dietary supplements The world markets for medicinal plants are mainly supplied by wild collection in natural populations. Agroforestry systems can be a valid alternative to produce medicinal plants. In fact in some areas of the world, especially in India and China, there is a tradition of this type of integrated crop. Today they are being carried out in different areas of the world, including Europe and Spain. This type of integrated crops from several approaches: integrate shade-tolerant MAPs as species of lower strata in multi-stratified systems; cultivate short cycle MAPs as intercropping in existing stands of tree plantations and new forest plantations; cultivate medicinal trees as shade providers, limit markers and in soil conservation structures; interplant MAPs with food crops. The studies already carried out in this field indicate that they are very interesting and promising methodologies in which a short-term benefit (MAPs) and another long-term benefit (forest plant) are obtained, in addition to other environmental and social benefits.

Las plantas medicinales y aromáticas (MAPs) son un recurso altamente demandado en la actualidad, ya que a los usos típicos de las plantas medicinales y aromáticas (en farmacia, fitoterapia, condimentaria, perfumería, bebidas alcohólicas) se sumaron con fuerza entre finales de 1990 y principios de 2000 otros nuevos que cada vez tienen un mayor peso en el cómputo global del movimiento de este tipo de mercancías. La media globlal de importaciones cada año supera las 400.000 toneladas de plantas medicinales y aromáticas. El mercado mundial se estima en 83.000 millones de dólares, de los cuales el 53% corresponderían a la Industria farmaceútica, 17% a productos dermocosméticas, otro 17% a alimentación y el 13% restante a suplementos dietéticos. Los mercados mundiales de plantas medicinales se abastecen fundamentalmente de la recolección silvestre en las poblaciones naturales. Los sistemas agroforestales pueden ser una alternativa válida para producir plantas medicinales. De hecho en India y China, hay tradición de este tipo de cultivo integrado. Hoy en día se están realizando en distintas zonas del mundo este tipo de cultivos integrados desde varios enfoques: MAPs tolerantes a la sombra como especies de estratos más bajos en sistemas multiestratato; cultivar MAPs de ciclo corto como cultivos intercalados en rodales existentes de plantaciones de árboles; cultivar árboles medicinales como proveedores de sombra; interplantar MAPs con cultivos alimentarios. Los estudios ya realizados en este campo indican que son metodologías muy intersantes y prometedoras en las que se obtienen un beneficio a corto plazo (MAPs) y otra largo plazo (planta forestal) además de otros beneficios ambientales y sociales.

Cereals are usually linked to human and livestock production. Extreme heats associated to climate change can be linked with cereal production losses. Therefore the production of cereals associated to silvoarable agroforestry systems that reduces temperatures in the crop environment due to the shade is seen as a good strategy to adapt cereal crops to climate change. However, most of cereal varieties that are sold were selected to be grown in open sites, and therefore there is a need of selecting cereal varieties to be developed under shade. A experiment was carried out in a greenhouse where 45 commercial varieties of wheat, maize and rye were evaluated with simulated shade. The experiment showed that for rye and wheat there were differences among varieties with regard to the behavior when grain and forage production under shade was considered, while maize production was seriously limited in most of the varieties. The selected varieties of wheat were Ingenio and Tocayo while with rye the most promising varieties were Bono, Petkus and Gatano. The maize varieties that better performed under shade where DS0747, HUXXTOR and Sinpatico. Wheat varieties were more productive with moderate shade with walnut than in open sites due to the lower competition with annual species that reduced production in open sites. The experiment showed that cereal varieties can be selected to grow under shade conditions. This selection should be carried out in different conditions as shade effect varies with different tree species and varieties as well as with the latitude where they are grown.

Los cereales suelen estar vinculados a la producción humana y ganadera. La aparición de temperaturas extremas asociadas al cambio climático se puede vincular con las pérdidas de producción de cereales. Por lo tanto, la producción de cereales asociada a sistemas agroforestales silvoarables que reducen las temperaturas en el ambiente del cultivo debido a la sombra se considera una buena estrategia para adaptar los cultivos de cereales al cambio climático. Sin embargo, la mayoría de las variedades de cereales en venta han sido seleccionadas para ser cultivadas en lugares abiertos, y por lo tanto, existe la necesidad de seleccionar variedades de cereales para desarrollarse bajo sombra. Se llevó a cabo un experimento en un invernadero donde se evaluaron 45 variedades comerciales de trigo, maíz y centeno con sombra simulada. El experimento mostró que para el centeno y el trigo había diferencias entre las variedades con respecto al comportamiento cuando se consideraba la producción de grano y forraje en condiciones de sombra, mientras que la producción de maíz estaba seriamente limitada en la mayoría de las variedades. Las variedades seleccionadas de trigo fueron Ingenio y Tocayo, mientras que con el centeno fueron Bono, Petkus y Gatano. Las variedades de maíz que mejor se desarrollaron bajo sombra fueron DS0747, HUXXTOR y Sinpatico. Las variedades de trigo fueron más productivas con sombra moderada con nogal que en sitios abiertos debido a la menor competencia con las especies anuales que redujeron la producción en zonas abiertas. El experimento mostró que se pueden seleccionar variedades de cereal para crecer en sombra que debe evaluarse sabiendo que la sombra cambia según las especies y variedades de árboles, así como con la latitud.

The production of mushrooms in agroforestry systems (SAF) can provide important economic benefits. Saprophytic and ectomycorrhizal fungi are the most important from an economic point of view. In the riparian buffer strips and hedges, mushrooms are produced in the spring that could reach high prices. It is also possible to grow saprophytic mushrooms in the SAF, as a complementary production to several forest stands. For example, Pleurotus ostreatus in poplar stands or cultivated in different substrates (straw, chips ...) or Lentinus edodes in oak, chestnut or alder woodlands have a high productivity although the productions are seasonal, mainly limited to autumn and spring, unlike the cultivation in climatized areas. The cultivation of medicinal mushrooms, may also be of interest. In ectomycorrhizal fungi, hyphae are associated with the roots of trees, especially forest trees. Interesting species for their commercial importance are, among others, the chanterelles associated with pines, the penny bun that are associated with pines, chestnuts, oaks and rockroses, the chanterelles that are associated with leafy preferably and the oronja, that is associated with cork oaks etc. Consequently, the most appropriate type of SAF to achieve a good production of this type of mushrooms are the silvopastoral systems with species such as pines, chestnuts, oaks, holm oaks, cork oaks, spurges, rock roses ... and also the alley cropping, if the tree species are able to form mycorrhiza with these fungal species.

La producción de setas en sistemas agroforestales (SAF) puede aportar importantes beneficios económicos. Los hongos saprófitos y los ectomicorrícicos son los más importantes económicamente. En los bosques de ribera y en setos se producen en primavera colmenillas que si se comercializan con precios elevados. También es posible cultivar hongos saprófitos en los SAF, como un complemento productivo en los sistemas forestales. Por ejemplo Pleurotus ostreatus asociados a madera de chopo o en sacos de diferentes sustratos (paja, astillas…) o Lentinus edodes asociados a la madera de roble, castaño o aliso presentan una elevada productividad, si bien las producciones serán estacionales, se limitarán al otoño y primavera, a diferencia del cultivo en naves climatizadas. El cultivo de hongos medicinales, también puede tener interés. En los hongos ectomicorrícicos las hifas se asocian con las raíces de los árboles, sobre todo árboles forestales. Especies interesantes por su importancia comercial son, entre otras, los níscalos que se asocian con pinos, los boletos que se asocian con pinos, castaños, robles y jaras, las cantarelas que se asocian con frondosas preferentemente y la oronja, que se asocia con alcornoques, rebollos, etc. En consecuencia, el tipo de SAF más apropiado para conseguir una buena producción de este tipo de setas son los sistemas silvopastorales con especies como pinos, castaños, robles, encinas, alcornoques, rebollos, jaras…y también los cultivos en callejones, si la especie arbórea forma micorrizas con esas especies de hongos.

Experiments conducted in Galicia in silvopasture systems showed the different behaviour of the inorganic fertilization and the sewage sludge addition on productivity and biodiversity linked to the soil acidity. The experiments consist of applying sewage sludge in neutral (water pH close to 7) and very acidic (water pH of around 4.5) soils. In soils with water pH close to 7, mineral fertilization caused a significant increase of pasture production that was in detriment of tree growth. The opposite happened when no fertilization was added: the fertility of the soil was high enough to increase tree growth but the lack of nitrogen reduced the potential pasture growth. When sewage sludge was added, both tree and pasture were growing similarly to the no fertilization and mineral treatment, respectively. This may be explained by the fact that, initially the sewage sludge application increased pasture production, but during the summer drought that usually happens in Galicia, tree growth was enhanced due to the inputs of organic matter associated to the sewage sludge that allowed the tree to overcome the summer drought, the limiting factor for tree growth. When similar treatments were applied in very acidic soil we found that no fertilization treatments caused a low tree and pasture production due to the low fertility of the soil, while the fertilization with the mineral fertilizer caused an increase of tree growth but not of the pasture. This may be explained by the fact that the low soil pH prevents the pasture from taking advantage of the mineral fertilizer inputs that was subsequently. When sewage sludge was applied, it increased soil pH that make possible for the pasture to use the applied nutrients.

Los experimentos realizados en Galicia en sistemas silvopastorales mostraron un comportamiento diferente de la fertilización inorgánica y de la adición de lodos de depuradora en la productividad y la biodiversidad relacionada con la acidez del suelo. Los experimentos consisten en la aplicación de lodos de depuradora en suelos neutros (pH del agua cerca de 7) y muy ácidos (pH del agua de alrededor de 4.5). En suelos con un pH de 7, la fertilización mineral causó un aumento de la producción de pasto en detrimento del crecimiento del árbol. Lo contrario sucedió cuando no se agregó fertilización. Cuando se agregaron los lodos, el árbol y el pasto crecían de manera similar a la no fertilización y el tratamiento mineral, respectivamente. Esto se debe a que, la aplicación de lodo de depuradora incrementó la producción de pasto, pero durante la sequía de verano que generalmente ocurre en Galicia, el crecimiento de los árboles se incrementó debido a los aportes de materia orgánica asociados a los lodos de depuradora que permitieron al árbol superar la sequía estival, factor limitante para el crecimiento de los árboles en Galicia. Cuando se aplicaron tratamientos similares en suelos muy ácidos, encontramos que el tratamiento control en el que no se aportaba fertilización causó una baja producción de árboles y pastos debido a la reducida fertilidad del suelo, mientras que la fertilización con el fertilizante mineral causó un aumento de crecimiento arbóreo pero no del pasto. Esto puede explicarse por el hecho de que el bajo pH del suelo evita que los pastos aprovechen los insumos de fertilizantes que se utilizaron posteriormente. Cuando se aplicó lodo de depuradora aumentó el pH del suelo que hace posible que los pastos usen los nutrientes aplicados.

At present, two different types of chestnut stands coexist in Galicia, some old, in areas of high altitude and more continental climate (i.e. Ancares / Caurel) and others in lower localities (recent plantations). Traditional chestnut forests are formed by centuries-old trees of about a hundred different varieties, which ensures chestnut production and resilience against unpredictable climatic events (ie wind, frost, climate change ...). The chestnut trees need regular pruning of renewal of cups every 30 years to ensure the production of fruit, sometimes they are accompanied by pruning of new grafts with varieties of greater acceptance in the market. Traditional chestnut harvesting in areas with a steep slope and difficult access is being abandoned in many cases. In these situations it may be interesting to introduce local and rustic animal breeds, such as "porco celta", which are adapted to mountain conditions and which produce quality meat that is exported to countries such as Japan. On the other hand, the new tree plantations introduced thanks to the rural development measures in the lower areas do not produce chestnuts in abundance until 8-10 years, so, given that the planting frames are very broad (10x10 m example) can be introduced silvoarables or silvopastoral practices, for example with rustic native breeds of sheep or cow. In the silvoarable practices can be cultivated with the chestnuts in the first years of establishment of the Souto medicinal and aromatic plants, fruit trees, cereals, oleaginous, forage plants or other crops. The chestnut tree is also an important honey plant and with it ectomycorrhizal mushroom producers.

En la actualidad, coexisten en Galicia dos tipos diferentes de masas de castaño, unas antiguas, en zonas de elevada altitud y clima más continental (i.e. Caurel) y otras en localidades más bajas (plantaciones recientes). Los bosques tradicionales de castaño están formados por árboles centenarios de un centenar de variedades diferentes que asegura la producción de castaña y resiliencia frente a eventos climáticos no predecibles (i.e. viento, heladas,..). Los castaños necesitan podas regulares de renovación de copas cada 30 años para asegurar la producción de fruto, a veces se acompañan esas podas de nuevos injertos con variedades de mayor aceptación en el mercado. La recolección tradicional de castaña en zonas con elevada pendiente y de difícil acceso se va abandonando en muchos casos. En estas situaciones puede ser interesante introducir razas animals locales y rústicas, como el "porco celta", que están adaptadas a las condiciones de montaña y que producen carne de calidad que se exporta a países como el Japón. Por otra parte, las nuevas plantaciones arboladas introducidas gracias a las medidas de desarrollo rural en las zonas más bajas no producen castañas en abundancia hasta los 8-10 años, por lo que, dado que los marcos de plantación son muy amplios (10x10 m por ejemplo) se pueden introducir prácticas silvoarables o silvopastorales, por ejemplo con razas rústicas autóctonas de oveja o vaca. En las prácticas silvoarables se pueden cultivar con los castaños en los primeros años de establecimiento del Souto plantas mediciniales y aromáticas, frutales arbustivos, cereales, oleaginosas, plantas forrajeras u otros cultivos. El castaño también es una importante planta melífera y con él se asocian hongos ectomicorrícicos productores de setas.

Climate change is generating uncertainties in agrofood systems framework due to the speed of the change but also the increased appearance of extreme events which is caused by the increase of Green House Gases (GHG) in the atmosphere. Agroforestry is identified as a negative emission technology that should be expanded to reduce GHG in the atmosphere. Mitigacion options declared by the European Union includes (i) the reduction of the GHG emissions through a more effective use of resources and technological development (e.g. by better land/waste management better land/waste management through the better use of the resources promoted by agroforestry and (ii) the removal of GHG from the atmosphere (e.g. by trees in farms), while maintaining production and decreasing input needs. The soil plays an important role in counteracting the GHG emissions into the atmosphere because it contains the 85% of the carbon in terrestrial ecosystems. The main sources of soil carbon are the roots being them increased when woody perennials are present as highlighs the Decision 529/2013/EU of the trees. The introduction of trees in arable lands increases the soil capacity to store carbon at deeper soil layers than tree less systems, which can be also associated to long term carbon stocks because the probability of C release to the atmosphere is reduced with the depth of the soil. The initiative 4 per thousand established by the COP of Paris establishes that an annual growth rate of 0.4% in the soil carbon stocks, or 4‰ per year, would halt the increase in the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere related to human activities.

El cambio climatico genera incertezas en el marco de los sistemas agroalimentarios debido a la rapidez que presenta y a la aparición de eventos extremos, causado por el aumento de gases de efecto invernadero (GEI) atmosférico. La agroforestería como una tecnología de emisiones negativas que debería ser expandida para reducir los GEI en la atmósfera. Las opciones de mitigación declaradas por la Unión Europea incluyen (i) la reducción de GEI a través de un uso más efectivo de los recursos y el desarrollo tecnológico que puede alcanzarse a través del emplo de la agroforestería y (ii) la extracción de GEI de la atmósfera (ej. por los árboles en las granjas agrícolas), mientras se mantiene la producción y se reduce la necesidad de insumos externos. El suelo juega un papel importante a la hora de compensar las emisiones de GEI en la atmósfera porque contiene cerca del 85% del carbono en los ecosistemas terrestres. La iniciativa 4 por mil declarada por la cumbre de Paris señala que si se incrementa el 4 por mil del contenido en carbono en los suelos del mundo se compensarían los gases de efecto invernadero. Las principales fuentes de carbono en el suelo son la raices de los árboles, cuya concentración aumenta cuando están presentes las especies leñosas tal y como señala el documento europeo "Decision 529/2013/EU". La introducción de árboles en tierras agrícolas aumenta la capacidad del suelo de almacenar carbono en las zonas más profundas del suelo en comparación con los sistemas desarbolados, lo que también se puede relacionar con el almacenaje a largo plazo ya que la probabilidad de liberación de carbono a la atmósfera se reduce con la profundidad del suelo.

Biodiversity is crucial to increase production per unit of land in agriculture by adequate combination of plants that are able to use different type of resources from soil and air therefore increasing provision of ecosystem services. Agroforestry improves biodiversity and therefore the provision of ecosystem services. The presence of isolated trees in an arable land clearly creates a spatial and temporary micro-environment with different water and nutrient balance that favours one varieties/species instead others that are different in the areas influenced by the woody perennials than in open sites. Accordingly, different understory varieties/species are differently adapted to different woody perennials influenced areas and the heterogeneity caused by these woody perennials affect plants but also different biodiversity taxon categories in cascade and the provision of ecosystem services from the land. For example when the presence of different species of trees or shrubs is considered at farm scale, woody perennials enlarges and complements the flowering period facilitating pollination, but also reducing water pollution that prevents from biodiversity losses in aquatic environments within, surrounding and even far away from the farm where birds and other animals need high quality waters to survive. Moreover, the use of woody perennials as feed is usually linked to autochthonous breeds that allow the local livestock breeds preservation. Europe hosts half of the autochthonous breeds of Europe, half of which are in risk of extinction.

La biodiversidad es crucial para aumentar la producción en agricultura a través de una combinación adecuada de plantas, que son capaces de emplear diferentes tipos de recursos a partir del suelo y aire, e incrementar la provisión de servicios ecosistémicos. Las prácticas agroforestales mejoran la biodiversidade y por tanto la provisión de servicios ecosistémicos. La presencia de árboles en terrenos arables crea microambientes espaciales y temporales con diferentes balances en agua y nutrientes, que favorecen unas variedades/especies en lugar de otras y que son diferentes en las zonas próximas a los árboles que en espacios desarbolados. Del mismo modo, la adaptación de las diferentes variedades/especies del sotobosque depende del área de influencia de las diferentes especies leñosas y esta heterogeneidad causada por estas especies leñosas afecta a las plantas pero también a las diferentes categorías taxonómicas vinculadas a la biodiversidad en cascada y por tanto a la provisión de servicios ecosistémicos a partir de una determinada superficie. Por ejemplo, cuando la presencia de diferentes especies de árboles o arbustos se considera a escala de granja, las especies leñosa alarga y complementa el período de floración facilitando la polinización, pero también reduciendo la polución de agua que evita pérdidas de biodiversidad en ambientes acuáticos dentro, cerca e incluso lejos de las granjas donde las aves y otros animales necesitan agua de calidad para sobrevivir. Es más el empleo de especies leñosas como forraje se vincula generalmente a las razas autóctonas que permiten la conservación de razas de ganado locales. Europa presenta la mitad de las razas autóctonas en Europa, mitad de las cuales están en riesgo de extinción.

Climate change is one of the greatest risks that farmers have to face in Europe and worldwide, as crops and livestock are negatively impacted by ily global warming and frequency of extreme events. Agroforestry is able to improve farm resilience due to the increased farm diversification, self-sufficiency and reduced production costs. They can also improve community resilience and enhance mitigation through e.g. carbon sequestration and reduced mineral fertilizer needs as recommends the National adaptation strategies (NAS) and plans (NAP). Main adaptation options recognised by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) are related to water control (e.g. increase water retention, recycling and irrigation efficiency) and thermic regulation (e.g. shading and sheltering for livestock), that can be improved through AF systems. Water retention is improved by the woody perennials as they increase porosity reducing therefore water run-off, but also due to the water soil extraction reduces the flooding risk, acting as barrier against unpredictable flooding. Ash is able to uptake water from deep soil layers and make it available in more superficial soil layers, permitting enough humidity to allow pasture to grow. Some agroforestry actions help also to improve farm resilience such as the extension of the grazing season, but also the leaves pruned by the trees used as forage in those specially dry. Moreover, the shade is able to avoid big losses of arable crops associated to extreme heats. Finally, understory grazing in forest stands reduces fuel and therefore fires risk, increasing the resilience in high risk periods associated to specific weather conditions.

El cambio climático es uno de los mayores riesgos al que se enfrenta en Europa y todo el mundo, ya que la agricultura se ve afectada por el calentamiento y la frecuencia de eventos extremos. La agroforestería es capaz de mejorar la resiliencia de las granjas debido al aumento de la diversificación y autosuficiencia y a la reducción de los costes de producción. También pueden mejorar la mitigación a través del secuestro de carbono y la disminución de la necesidad de los fertilizantes minerales tal y como se recomienda en las estrategias de adaptación nacionales (NAS) y en sus planes (NAP). Las principales opciones de adaptación reconocidas por la Convención de Cambio climático en el marco de naciones unidas (UNFCCC) se relacionan con el control del agua (ej. aumento de la retención de agua) y la regulación térmica (ej. protección para el ganado), que puede mejorarse mediante el uso de sistemas agroforestales. La retención del agua se mejora por la presencia del árbol/arbusto que mejoran la porosidad del suelo reduciendo pérdidas por escorrentía, pero también porque el consumo de agua reduce el riesgo de inundaciones, siendo una barrera ante inundaciones. El fresno que es capaz de consumir agua de las capas profundas del suelo y liberarla en zonas más superficiales permitiendo una humedad que favorece el desarrollo del pasto. Algunas acciones agroforestales ayudan también a mejorar la resiliencia de las explotaciones como la extensión de la estación de crecimiento, pero también las hojas pueden ser utilizadas como forraje. Es más la sombra es capaz de evitar grandes pérdidas en cultivos agrícolas asociadas a golpes de calor. Finalmente el pastoreo del sotobosque reduce el combustible vegetal en las masas forestales reduciendo el riesgo de incendios.

Herbs production is a promising farming activity for small holdings in Poland. Optimal use of the land within small farms might be achieved by combined production of shade-tolerant herbs and fruit bushes, designed in the form of alley cropping system. On July 2017, EIP Operational Group "Agroforestry in Zielawa Valley" has been formed in Eastern Poland (Sosnówka), where following agroforestry systems have been established: elderberry with lungwort (Pulmonaria officinalis) and heath speedwell (Veronica officinalis); rugosa rose (Rosa rugosa) and dog rose (Rosa canina) with cloudberry. The main strengths of the system are: contrary to trees, in the case of bushes less time is needed to achieve fruiting period - the pay-back period for elderberry and rose starts in the second year; both plants can be used for flowers/petals, fruit cultivation and leaves; both woody crops are adapted to low quality soils (the combination of rose and cloudberry is good for acid soils); rose and elderberry products are highly demanded on the market. Shade-tolerant heath speedwell, lungwort and cloudberry are source of niche innovative medicinal products, food supplements and also honey from lungwort. The main weaknesses: high investment costs; labor intensity; specific requirements of plants growth (humid and acid site for cloudberry, calcium-rich site for lungwort). Innovative model of farming still needs testing in terms of nutritional and protective needs. Different methods of soil amendments are being tested in the system (peat soil, pine bark, lignite) in order to keep soil moisture and protect against weeds. Cloudberry has been planted within ditches, covered by membrane foil, regulating water flow.

Produkcja ziół jest obiecującą działalnością rolniczą dla małych gospodarstw rolnych w Polsce. Połączona uprawa współrzędna cieniolubnych ziół i krzewów owocowych pozwala na optymalne wykorzystanie gruntów w małych gospodarstwach. W lipcu 2018 roku Grupa Operacyjna EPI "Agroleśnictwo w Dolinie Zielawy" rozpoczęła realizację operacji w miejscowości Sosnówka we Wschodniej Polsce, w ramach której założono drzewno-orny system uprawy róży pomarszczonej (Rosa rugosa) i dzikiej (R. canina) z maliną moroszką (Rubus chamaemorus) oraz uprawy bzu czarnego z miodunka plamistą i przetacznikiem. Główne zalety systemu: w przeciwieństwie do drzew owocowych, okres kwitnienia i zwrot inwestycji w uprawę krzewów owocowych rozpoczyna się w drugim roku po zasadzeniu; oba gatunki krzewów mogą być uprawiane w celu zbioru kwiatów (płatków), owoców jak i liści; równocześnie są przystosowane do uprawy na słabych glebach (połączenie róży i żurawiny zalecane na glebach kwaśnych), popyt na produkty z róży i bzu obecnie rośnie. Cieniolubna miodunka, przetacznik i malina moroszka mogą być źródłem produktów kosmetycznych, herbatek ziołowych, suplementów diety, miodunka jest również cenną rośliną miododajną. Problemem są wysokie koszty założenia plantacji, pracochłonność, specyficzne wymagania roślin (wilgotne i kwaśne siedlisko maliny, alkaliczne miodunki), ponadto technologia produkcji jest w fazie testowania np. bada się wpływ różnych polepszaczy gleby (torf, kora sosnowa, węgiel brunatny). Maliny są sadzone w rowach, wyłożonych membraną foliową.

Restoring or constructing small (or large) wetlands on farms can help in creating attractive landscapes so this can be an option when a farm has some rural tourism activities. In addition, creating wetlands would be beneficial for plants and animals biodiversity, they provide valuable habitat to a range of wildlife, e.g. dragonflies, birds and butterflies, and under appropriate management conditions wetlands can act as a carbon sink. In Finland, farmers can apply for subsidies if they create or restore a wetland on their farm. In the preparations of the draft of the New Finnish Climate Change Adaptation Action Plan, creation of wetlands was recognised as an important climate change adaptation measure, improving water and nutrient retention capacity.Riparian buffer strips can be created aroung wetlands. In case of flooding or heavy rainfall, wetlands function as an extra reservoir and can help as a flood prevention measure. In addition, in times of drought wetlands can function as an additional drinking reservoir for livestock or for spraying the crops, increasing climate resilience of farms.

Pienten (tai suurten) kosteikkojen perustaminen tai ennallistaminen maatiloilla voi luoda houkuttelevia agrometsätalouden maisemia ja lisätä alueen virkistysarvoja. Kosteikot lisäävät luonnon monimuotoisuutta, sillä ne tarjoavat arvokasta elinympäristöä erilaisille villieläimille kuten sudenkorennoille, linnuille ja perhosille. Asianmukaisesti hoidettuna kosteikko voi toimia hiilinieluna. Suomessa maanviljelijät voivat hakea tukia kosteikkojen perustamiseen tai ennallistamiseen tilallaan. Suomen uuden ilmastonmuutokseen sopeutumissuunnitelman luonnoksen valmistelussa kosteikkojen perustaminen tunnustettiin tärkeäksi ilmastonmuutoksen sopeutumistoimenpiteeksi, joka parantaa pintaveden laadun ja ravinteiden säilyttämiskykyä. Kosteikkojen ympärille voidaan luoda vesien suojavyöhykkeitä. Tulvien tai rankkasateiden sattuessa kosteikko toimii ylimääräisenä säiliönä ja voi auttaa tulvien torjunnassa. Lisäksi kosteikkoalueet voivat kuivuuden aikoina toimia kasteluveden tai karjan juomaveden varastoina, mikä lisää tilojen ilmastokestävyyttä.

Protection of young trees is one of the key questions to establish and maintain agroforestry systems. There are many possibilities for artificial and natural protection methods. Based on farmers' knowledge and research experiments, in Hungarian ancient wood systems with oak and wild pear trees grazed by sheep and cattle, the best option for oak tree regeneration was proved to be protection of young trees with fence and thorny shrubs around the stems or just plant young trees in small shrub plots. Note that damages by game and moving can decrease significantly the number of young trees in a pastureland. Therefore, discussions with all related stakeholders - eg. owners of neighboring lands and the driver of the hay-cutting machine - is of high importance. Landscape historical data and local people knowledge can help the farmer by highlighting the main constraint to tree regeneration (eg. trees are suffering from dryness due to changing to drier area from a formerly floodplain). It means that the regeneration and sustainability of the agroforestry system requires an understanding of the historical landscape and soil and water regulation as well.as well. There are several moderns forms to protect trees against animal damage, that includes plastic cylinders with some holes that facilitate aeration. This system is good for some areas but not for others. If the micro-environment is so dry or humid these conditions limit the proper lignifications of the young tree causing problems. Both, fencing against wild animals and thorny species placed around the tree have proven to be the best option to reduce tree damages.

Ez az egyik legfontosabb kérdés az agrárerdészeti rendszerek létrehozásával és fenntartásával kapcsolatban. A világon számos mesterséges és természetes védelmi módszer ismert. A gazdálkodók tapasztalatai és kutatási eredmények alapján, a juhokkal és szarvasmarhákkal legeltetett, tölgy- és körtefákkal tarkított magyarországi öregfás fás legelőkön a tölgyfák regenerálódásának elősegítésére a célravezetőbb módszer a kerítés telepítése mellett a fiatal fák védelme szúrós cserjefajok csemete körüli körbeültetésével, vagy a fiatal fák beültetése már meglévő cserjefoltokba. A vad és a kaszálás okozta károk jelentősen csökkenthetik a legelőkön lévő fiatal fák számát. Ezért fontos az érdekelt felekkel - pl. a szomszédos területek tulajdonosaival és a gépkezelővel - egyeztetni. A tájtörténeti adatok és a helyi emberek ismeretei segíthetik a gazdálkodót a fák regenerációját akadályozó tényezők azonosításában (pl. a fák kiszáradása a korábbi árterület szárazabbá válása miatt). A gazdálkodók és a kutatók arra hívják fel a figyelmet, hogy az agrárerdészeti rendszerek telepítésének és sikeres fenntartásának fontos előfeltétele tájtörténeti, talaj- és a vízgazdálkodási vizsgálatok végzése. Számos modern formája van annak, hogy megvédjük a fákat a vadkártól, ilyenek például a különböző kialakítású perforált törzsvédő elemek. Ennek a módszernek a hatékonysága azonban eszköz-és területfüggő. Ha a mikro-környezet szélsőségesen száraz vagy nedves, akkor egyes törzsvédők akár korlátozhatják is a fiatal fa megfelelő lignifikációját. A vadkerítés és a fák körül elhelyezett tüskés növényfajok alkalmazása bizonyult a legjobb megoldásnak a fiatal fák károsodásának csökkentésére.

It is more difficult to create productive systems in a windy place with sandy,shallow soil and with a tendency to droughts than in fertile soils. Orchards surrounded by hedges and green belts of forest species provides a well-functioning solution to this problem. Under the conditions of such areas, the presence of hedges gives protection to the plants of the orchard (wind protection, shadow, air and soil humidification). Before installing the system, it is advisable to apply clover/grass mixture, as this improves the soil structure and nutrient content. Covering the soil surface with grass leguminose soil covering prevents weeds. In the experimental orchard of Szent István University in Hungary, the orchard was partly carried out with self-grown fruit-tree grafting stocks, which promoted better rooting. In order to enhance the resilience and thus productivity of the system not only the varieties available in the nursery, but also the traditional varieties of fruit growing were used. (in this case traditional Hungarian varieties such as "Penyigei" plum, "Szoboszlai early sour cherry, and "Húsvéti rozmaring" were planted). Due to the wide scale of varieties, the system is diverse and provides continuous crop production throughout the growing season.

Szeles helyen, homokos, sekély talajon és aszályra hajlamos termőhelyen jóval nehezebb produktív rendszert létrehozni mint termékeny talajon. A növényi védősávval és sövénnyel körülvett gyümölcsösök jól működő megoldást nyújtanak erre a problémára. Ilyen területeken a sövények jelenléte védelmet nyújt a gyümölcsös növényei számára (szélvédelem, árnyékolás, mikroklíma javítása). A rendszer telepítése előtt ajánlatos lóhere / fű keveréket alkalmazni, mivel ez javítja a talaj szerkezetét és tápanyagtartalmát. A talaj felszínének takarása hüvelyesekkel gazdagított gyepkeverékkel megakadályozza a gyomosodást. A Szent István Egyetem kísérleti erdőkertjében a telepítés előtt füvesherével vetették be a felületet, amelynek kiváló a talajszerkezet és tápanyagjavító hatása. A talajfelszínt folyamatosan élő mulccsal takarták. A telepítés részben saját nevelésű gyümölcsfa oltványokkal történt, amely elősegítette a jobb eredést. A fajtaválaszték szempontjából nem csak a faiskolában kapható, hanem a gyümölcstermesztésben hagyományosnak számító tájfajtákat is alkalmaztak (Penyigei szilva, Szoboszlai korai meggy, Nyári zöld alma, Húsvéti rozmaring stb.) Helyet kaptak a régi tájfajták, de az új, rezisztens fajták is.

Agroforestry practices can significantly mitigate climate change-related adverse effects: changes in heat and radiation, as well as soil temperature and soil moisture content. One example is when afforestation is supported by alley cropping or intercropping. The main purpose of using this technology is to protect the seedlings in the first years and thus ensure the success of reforestation. By the use of intercropping in forest plantations, the shading of herbaceous plants on saplings, soil cover and thus improvement of water management and protection of the soil from sunlight (a reduction in soil temperature and increase of soil moisture content in hot and drought periods) can be achieved. It can significantly reduce the tree plant mortality rate, improve the quality and growth parameters of the plantation, while reducing damage by game. The positive effects of the application of agroforestry practices in forest plantations are proved by several experiments made by Hungarian forestry companies. made by Hungarian forestry companies.

Az agroerdészeti gyakorlatok jelentősen mérsékelhetik az éghajlatváltozással kapcsolatos káros hatásokat: a hőmérséklet és a sugárzás, valamint a talajhőmérséklet és talajnedvesség-tartalom változását. Erre jó példa az erdőfelújításokban alkalmazott a fasorok közti művelés, más néven köztestermesztés. A fő cél a palánták védelme az első években és ezáltal az erdősítés sikerének biztosítása. A köztes termesztés erdőfelújításokban történő alkalmazásával a lágyszárú növények árnyékoló hatása, talajtakarása és ezáltal a vízgazdálkodás javítása és a talaj védelme (aszályos időszakban a talajhőmérséklet csökkenése és nedvességtartalmának növelése) elérhető. Ez jelentősen csökkentheti a faállomány kiveszési rátáját, növelheti az ültetvény minőségi és növekedési paramétereit, mialatt csökkenti a vadkárt. Az agroerdészeti gyakorlatok alkalmazásának pozitív hatásait az erdőfelújításokban számos magyarországi kísérlet igazolja.

Despite their space requirement, shelterbelts are widely used for protecting fields, properties and livestock and improving productivity by altering wind flow and regulating climate. It is important to shape the structure to be suitable for the purpose of protection besides an appropriate orientation (ie. perpendicular to wind direction). Experiences show that it is unnecessary to plant 15 to 20 row-wide forest belts, since the first couple of rows of trees can break the strength of wind. However, some guidelines for the structure and choice of species must be taken into consideration during the installation, such as building gradual shape by using native or locally adapted tree and shrub species, higher trunk density on windward side and varied tree heights in the interior lines. Farmers explored that beyond the protection and ecological benefits ensured by these multistrata green structures, the diversity in species allows them to broaden the scope of utilization options: a diverse hedgerow can provide several high value products and services and thus improve the economy of the farm. Flowers and berries of trees and bushes can be sold raw or processed. A wide variety of species provides diverse pasture rich in food for bees while the farmer produces more fruit from pollination. Woody material from summer pruning and waste wood is usable as supplementary feed for animals. Additionally a significant part of the fuel demand of the farm can be covered from thinning and cuttings.

Helyigényük ellenére a mezővédő erdősávokat széles körben használják a tulajdon, a termőföld és az állatállomány védelmére, a termelékenység növelésére szélfogó és mikroklíma javító hatása révén. Fontos, hogy a szerkezet a megfelelő elhelyezkedés mellett (pl. szélirányra merőlegesen) alkalmas legyen a védelem céljára. A tapasztalatok azt mutatják, hogy nem szükséges 15-20 sor széles védősávot ültetni, mivel az első pár fasor már kellően megtöri a szelet. A telepítés során azonban figyelembe kell venni néhány iránymutatást a fajok kiválasztására és a szerkezetre vonatkozóan, mint például a lépcsőzetes forma kialakítása őshonos vagy helyi viszonyokhoz alkalmazkodott fa- és cserjefajok használatával, a törzssűrűség növelése a szél felőli oldalon és változatos famagasság a belső sorokban. A gazdálkodók tapasztalatai szerint a fa és cserje fajok sokfélesége lehetővé teszi, hogy a többszintű zöld struktúrák által biztosított megfelelő (szél, erózió, vegyszerszóródás stb. elleni) védelmen túl a felhasználási lehetőségek körét is bővítsék. Az ökológiai előnyök mellett egy változatos fajösszetételű sövény vagy mezővédő erdősáv számos értékes terméket és szolgáltatást nyújt, és ezáltal javítja a gazdaság jövedelmezőségét. A fák és bokrok virágai és bogyói nyersen eladhatók vagy feldolgozhatók kézműves termékekké. A fajok széles választéka elnyújtott virágzási idejű, táplálékban gazdag legelőt biztosít a méhek számára, melyek beporzással segítik elő a nagyobb termést. A nyári metszés zöld- és vékonyág anyaga az állatok kiegészítő takarmányaként használható. A gazdaság tüzelőanyag igényének jelentős részét a gyérítés és a nyesedékek fedezhetik.

Agroforestry systems can promote the renewed practices of traditional methods ie. livestock keeping, handcraft, gastronomy etc., which have been forgotten throughout Europe in the last decades. Edible wild fruits (e.g wild pear) were traditionally an important income from wood pastures. It was used as forage, but for gastronomy too. Wood pasture restoration could improve those uses as well. With the restoration of woody pastures, more and more farmers return to traditional methods such as agroforestry. For wooded pastures, varied land use is based on a wide variety of trees. An excellent example includes the selection, caring for and planting of wild fruit trees. Eating their fruits raw or processed may be of great benefit for farmers themselves, but it is also an extra source of income when marketed. Preparation, consumption and marketing of non-pasteurised, nutritionally complete vinegar from wooded pasture derived wild fruits has gained more popularity beside fruit jams and juices in the latest years. Besides growing and processing wild fruits, the farmer can make further profit with the processing of the high quality wool of their grazing sheep livestock. Processed products can be sold on the local market or by direct ordering. Dissemination of the procedure of traditional wool and fruit processing in folk-playhouses and camps can further increase the turnover of the rural turism built on the farm. In relation to the efforts made to establish an autonomous, nature-based lifestyle, a cornucopia of opportunities offered by nature is explored, allowed by the specific observations made as a result of a lifestyle continuously conducted close to nature and the implementation of new ideas derived from such observations.

Az agroerdészeti gazdálkodás támogatja az Európa-szerte feledésbe merült hagyományok, mint például az állattartás, a kézművesség vagy a vidéki gasztronómia megújítását. Az ehető vadon termő gyümölcsök (pl. vackor) régen a fás legelők fontos jövedelemforrásai voltak. Gasztronómiai célokra és takarmányozásra egyaránt használták. A fás legelők helyreállításával egyre több helyen térnek vissza ezekhez a hagyományos módszerekhez. A fás legelők esetében a változatos területhasználat a fák széles választékán alapul. Egy kitűnő példa a vadon termő gyümölcsfák ültetése és gondozása. A gyümölcsök nyers vagy feldolgozott formában történő fogyasztása előnyös a gazda számára, ugyanakkor árusításukkal külön jövedelemforrássá válnak. Az utóbbi években a nem pasztőrözött, teljes értékű ecet elkészítése, fogyasztása és forgalmazása fás legelőből származó vadon termő gyümölcsből egyre nagyobb népszerűségre tesz szert a dzsemek és gyümölcslevek mellett. A vadon termő gyümölcsök termesztése és feldolgozása mellett a gazda további bevételhez juthat a fás legelőn nevelt juhok magas minőségű gyapjújának feldolgozásával. A késztermékek a termelői piacon vagy közvetlen megrendeléssel értékesít- hetők. A hagyományos gyapjú-és élelmiszerfeldolgozás eljárásainak népszerűsítése népi játszóházakban és táborokban tovább növelheti az agroerdészetre alapozott vidéki turizmus forgalmát. Az önellátó, természetközeli életmód jelentős értékeket hordoz magában, ezen életmód kialakítása közben a természet által kínált lehetőségek bőséges tárházát fedezhetjük fel, mely lehetőségek kihasználásával tovább növelhető az önellátás szintje, gazdaságunk termékpalettája és bevétele.

One of the difficulties encountered when livestock is grazing isto provide the appropriate amount and nutritional value of the grass storey of pastures which can be reduced as a result of drought periods. As the climate changes, the risk of irregularities and unpredictability is increases. Open pastures during colder or hot periods increase animal stress, decline animal health and decrease feeding efficiency. Non tree-protected pastures strengthen the risk of soil losses as well. Plantation of trees or using existing woodlots offer solution to these problems. Wooded pastures provide foodstuff such as acorn, wild fruits, herbs or foliage by which food supply to livestock can be diversified and even ensured. These sources also contain antiviral, fungicide, bactericide and immune-supportive agents that can play an important role in maintaining or improving animal health. In addition, trees create nesting places for birds that according to farmers decrease nuisance and harmfulness of flies for livestock promoting health and good quality livestock products. They rub themselves against trees or enjoy the shade on warmer days or shelter during windy cold days. Caretaking, manifested among others in the diversification of grazing resource practices will result in good quality beef. Moreover, such areas provide wood (renewable fuel) as well, by which the price of thinning can be covered.

Az állatállomány legeltetésének egyik nehézsége a takarmány mennyiségének és tápértékének megfelelő szintű biztosítása, különösen meleg, aszályos időszakokban. Ahogy a klíma változik, az időjárási szélsőségek gyakorisága és ezzel a gazdálkodás kockázata is nő. A nyílt legelők a téli hideg vagy nyári forróbb időszakok során növelik az állatállományra nehezedő stresszt, legyengítik az állatokat és csökkentik a takarmányozás hatékonyságát. A nyitott legelők a talajerózió kockázatát is növelik. A fák ültetése vagy a meglévő fás területek használata megoldást kínál ezekre a problémákra. A fás legelők kiegészítő táplálékokat nyújtanak: makkot, vadon termő gyümölcsöket, gyógynövényeket vagy a fák lombozatát, így változatossá tehető az állatállomány takarmányellátása. Utóbbi tápanyagforrások vírus-, gomba- és baktériumölő, immunrendszer működését segítő gyógyhatású anyagokat is tartalmaznak, így fontos szerepet töltenek be az állatok egészségi állapotának fenntartásában vagy javításában. A fák költőhelyekként is szolgálnak a madarak (természetes predátorok) számára, így a gazdák szerint az állatok kevésbé vannak kitéve a legyek okozta nyugtalanságnak és betegségeknek. Ez segíti az egészséges és jó minőségű állatállomány felnevelését. Emellett a fák árnyékot adnak a tűző nap vagy a szeles, hideg idő elől. A gondozás, amely többek között a legeltetési gyakorlatok sokféleségében nyilvánul meg, jó minőségű marhahúst eredményez. Az ilyen területek tűzifát is biztosítanak (megújuló energia), amellyel a gyérítés ára fedezhető.

Bois Paysan is a group of 30 farmers in the region of Ariège in France, which is focused on increasing the wood resources in the region and climbing up the value chain of this wood produced on the farm. The idea came from the decrease of timber availability in the region which will soon lead to scarcity, and hence opportunity. From this, purely economic observation piles up the numerous agronomic advantages of agroforestry. Created in 2013, the organization began its actions by refurbishing existing hedges and then evolved to promote new agroforestry plantations and knowledge transfer. Thirty-five hectares of land were converted in agroforestry in 2015, including 4 km of hedges. Nowadays, ten of the farmers gathered into a distribution company to process and sell directly high-value products from this "farmers' wood", bypassing intermediates and aggregating value. This company already signed 20 offtake contracts with gardening and hardware stores for products like mulch (ramial chipped wood), wood charcoal, timber. Bois Paysan is an inspiring initiative, linking agronomic good practices with economic outlets, hence verticalizing the whole agroforestry value chain. This with a farmers' led collective approach.

Bois Paysan est un groupe de 30 agriculteurs dans la région de l'Ariège en France dont l'objectif est d'augmenter la disponibilité de la ressource bois dans la région ainsi que de capturer plus de valeur ajoutée avec ce bois produit dans des fermes. Cette idée est venue du constat que la disponibilité du bois était progressivement en train de diminuer dans la région, ce qui mènerait à un manque sévère d'ici les prochaines années. Ce problème a été vu comme une opportunité, et de cette perspective purement économique vient s'ajouter tous les bénéfices agronomiques de la réintroduction des arbres au niveau des fermes. Créée en 2013, cette organisation commença ses actions par entretenir mieux les haies déjà existantes, puis décida d'aller plus loin en promouvant l'agroforesterie et en proposant un appui technique aux producteurs. Ainsi, trente-cinq hectares furent convertis à l'agroforesterie, incluant 4km de haies. Aujourd'hui dix agriculteurs de ce groupe de pionniers se sont associés dans une entreprise afin de transformer et distribuer ce " bois paysan ", outrepassant les intermédiaires et capturant donc plus de valeur ajoutée. Cette entreprise a déjà réussi à signer plus de 20 contrats avec des enseignes de jardinage et d'outillage pour des produits comme du BRF (Bois Raméal Fragmenté), du charbon, des plaquette. Bois Paysan est une initiative inspirante, faisant le lien entre de bonnes pratiques agricoles et la construction d'une vraie filière de valorisation agroforestière. Et tout cela grâce à la démarche collective d'agriculteurs.

A farmer in France introduced sheep inside his declining plum and apple orchard twenty years ago with the objective of diversifying his activities. His fruit production was becoming less and less profitable because of serious soil compaction and critical contamination of diseases. However, after a few years of grazing by sheep, productivity of his fruit trees began to increase again and the newly planted trees that replaced the dead ones showed an unprecedented growth. Manure input from the sheep helps stimulate soil biota and structure, and their consumption of tree debris, such as fallen fruit, reduces tree pests. Shropshire sheep do not consume tree bark, so they live amongst the trees without damaging them. Tree hedgerows were also added to the orchard providing medicinal forage for the sheep, improving health and reducing the need for veterinary treatments and food supplements (usually linked to the tannins presence with anti-helmintic activity).This example shows association of activities at farm level with mutual benefits known as the agroforestry practice silvopasture. The orchard began to produce strongly again, sheep’s nutrition was perfectly balanced and soil fertility was regenerated. This diversification strengthened the added-value with direct commercialization (everything is sold on the farm).

Après avoir vu la production de son verger de pruniers et de pommiers diminuer progressivement, un agriculteur français a décidé d'introduire des moutons pour y pâturer dans l'optique de diversifier sa production. Sa production fruitière devenait de mois en moins rentable dû à une compaction critique des sols ainsi qu'une pression trop forte des maladies. Cependant, après plusieurs années de pâturage des moutons, la productivité des arbres fruitiers a commencé à remonter, et les nouveaux plants de fruitiers démontrèrent une vigueur bien supérieure à celle des anciens. Le fumier apporté permet en fait de stimuler le microbiote du sol et la consommation des fruits tombés au sol par les moutons permet aussi de diminuer le risque de contamination par des maladies. Les moutons de la race Shropshire ne consomment pas l'écorce des fruitiers, ce qui permet de les laisser pâturer dans le verger sans craindre une dégradation des arbres. Des haies arborées ont aussi été implantées autour du verger afin de fournir un fourrage aux propriétés médicinales pour les moutons, diminuant ainsi les coûts vétérinaires et de compléments alimentaires (grâce aux tannins contenus dans ce type de fourrage qui a des qualité vermifuges). Cet exemple montre une association bénéfique d'activités pourtant bien différentes dans une ferme, cette pratique de l'agroforesterie mêlant élevage et arboriculture peut aussi être appelée sylvopasture. Le verger se remet à produire de façon intense, la nutrition des moutons est équilibrée et le sol se régénère. Cette diversification de produits a aussi permis de capturer plus de valeur ajoutée, notamment par la vente directe sur la ferme.

Agroforestry on cropland faces a major issue of competition between trees and crops for light, water and nutrients which can strongly affect the profitability. One of the main parameters is the distance between tree lines. The closer the lines, generally the higher the crop yield reduction when the trees reach full height. Higher distances between trees are advised to tackle this issue also aligned with the evolution of agricultural machinery that becomes broader and broader. Tree lines composed of double-rows might be a solution to keep a sufficient tree density on the plot, while preserving crop production. A Chinese study on double row poplars, published in 2005, claims an increase of 46% on the benefit/cost ratio after 7 years. The French Association for Agroforestry is going to publish soon a good-practices report for agroforestry systems mixing poplars to crops or poultry production. In this document, economic modelization, made with conservative factors taken from existing projects, shows that a double-row poplar system would outperform a single-row one in terms of EBITDA (earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization) with the same tree density. The double-row system would get a 118€/ha EBITDA against a 56€ one for the single-row. This is mainly explained by the fact that a very dense single row would impact the wood production of the poplars with a 20% decrease compared to the double-row. However, it was impossible to measure the impact of the double-row or the single-row on the crop yields. This is to be investigated in the future to fully apprehend the potential of double-row agroforestry systems.

L'agroforesterie en grandes cultures pose de nombreux défis, notamment la question de la gestion de la compétition entre les arbres et les céréales. Un des facteurs clefs pour gérer cela est l'espacement entre les lignes. Généralement, plus les lignes d'arbres sont rapprochées, plus l'impact sur les rendements peut être conséquent lorsque les arbres arrivent à maturité. Espacer les lignes est un conseil courant, qui permet de continuer à utiliser des équipements agricoles très larges. Pour compenser cet espacement et donc garder une bonne densité d'arbre, implanter des doubles lignes pourrait être une solution. Une étude réalisée en Chine a montré que certains schémas de plantation en doubles lignes pourraient augmenter de 46% le ratio coûts/recettes de l'exploitation après 7 ans. AFAF va publier d'ici peu un livret de bonnes pratiques concernant le peuplier agroforestier. Dans cet ouvrage, les modélisations économiques, réalisées à partir de facteurs conservatifs reposant sur des projets existants, montrent que les systèmes à double-lignes permettent d'obtenir un EBE à l'hectare supérieur que ceux à lignes simples (à densité d'arbres égale). L'EBE du système double-ligne serait de 118€/ha contre 56€/ha pour celui à ligne simple. Cela provient majoritairement du fait que la ligne simple doit être très dense pour atteindre la même densité d'arbre que la double-ligne, entraînant un impact sur la production de bois des peupliers évalué à 20% dans le livret. Cependant, il n'a pas été possible d'évaluer l'impact des différentes modalités de lignes de peuplier sur le rendement des cultures. C'est un axe de recherche qu'il reste à creuser pour bien appréhender le potentiel des systèmes agroforestiers à double-lignes.

The grapevine moth causes important losses to vineyard owners: the larvae perforate the grapes and help spread diseases (such as Lobesia botrana spreading Botrytis or spreading flavescence dorée. Farmers then need to frequently apply pesticides to control the moths and mould, which impacts the profitability and the environment. Bats can play a relevant action in the protection of economically important crops against lepidopteran pests. Although they are present in intensive vineyards, bats still prefer hunting in more natural environments such as tree hedgerows. On pilot plantations involving the plantation of tree alignments in vineyards in the South-West area of France, a reduction of occurrence of grapevine moth has already been reported along with an increased presence of bats at dusk. Other pilot plantations with bushy hedges in vineyards rely on the screen effect of hedges to isolate plots from each other, contributing to slow down the spread of pathogens and diseases like grey mould. With the economic value of timber and hedge wood, the owner of the vineyard can compensate the slight loss of wine production resulting from these optimisations of the biological control of the plots. Among positive side effects, the presence of trees and hedges can help control the level of shade and moisture of vineyards exposed to increasingly extreme weather events. Research is now ongoing to understand the influence of tree species on the presence of bats and birds and their control potential.

L’eudémis de la vigne est un problème sérieux pour les vignobles : la larve vient perforer le raisin et ouvre une porte d’entrée pour les maladies (comme la pourriture grise ou la flavescence dorée). Les viticulteurs doivent donc sévèrement contrôler ce vecteur de maladie en appliquant souvent des pesticides, ce qui finit par impacter lourdement l’environnement et la rentabilité du domaine. Les chauves-souris peuvent apporter une solution intéressante contre ces infestations de lépidoptères. Bien qu’on retrouve parfois des chauves-souris dans les domaines viticoles, elles préfèrent cependant chasser depuis des environnements plus naturels comme les haies arborées. Sur des plantations pilotes réalisées dans le Sud-Ouest de la France, une réduction de population de l’eudémis a été constatée suite à une augmentation de la présence des chauves-souris au crépuscule. D’autres vignobles jouent sur l’action barrière des haies qui permettent d’isoler les parcelles l’une de l’autre et ainsi limiter la diffusion des pathogènes comme la pourriture grise. Grâce à la vente de produits bois venant de la haie, le vigneron peut ainsi compenser une éventuelle diminution de production de son vignoble provoquée par l’implantation de haies permettant un biocontrôle. Les haies peuvent aussi jouer sur d’autres facteurs clefs de la conduite d’un vignoble comme l’ombrage ou l’humidité, qui deviennent même critiques lors d’épisodes climatiques extrêmes. Plusieurs études sont menées pour mieux comprendre l’impact de chaque espèce d’arbre et d’arbuste sur la présence des chauves-souris, et donc leur potentiel pour le contrôle des nuisibles.

Mycorrhizae represent a core part of agricultural systems, improving their resilience thanks to mutual benefits (mycorrhizal fungi protecting the plants, cross-feeding, etc.). Mycorrhizae are a powerful lever to keep an agriculture system resilient, functional and productive in a context of climate change. The Mycoagra project which began in 2017 in France on corn and walnut fields, aims at showing the benefits of mycorrhizae from the environmental, economic, and social point of view, and comparing the impact of agricultural practices on the diversity and quantity of mycorrhizae. One of the main objectives is to help farmers to understand which practices are harmful (tillage, use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers…) and which are beneficial (diversified cover crops especially leguminous plants, direct drilling, organic inputs, agroforestry, use of old varieties…) for mycorrhizae development. A study made in France showed that direct drilling under green cover without chemical N-fertilization allowed a 35% mycorrhization of the wheat's roots while tillage and chemical N led to less than 3%. The study also showed that there was quasi no difference between the quantity of N absorbed by the mycorrhized wheat and the N-fertilized wheat. The information provided by Mycoagra in the coming years will guide farmers to organize and manage their systems in a sustainable way encouraging the mycorrhizae establishment and diversity.

Les mycorhizes sont éléments clefs des systèmes agricoles, elles améliorent leur résilience grâce des relations de type gagnant-gagnant avec la plante (amélioration de la nutrition, de l’immunité, de la protection des plantes, etc…). Les mycorhizes sont une piste solide d’amélioration pour maintenir un système agricole efficace et productif dans un contexte de changement climatique. Mycoagra est un projet lancé en 2017 en France cherchant à étudier les bienfaits (écologiques, économiques et sociaux) apportés par les mycorhizes sur des parcelles de noyers et de maïs, ainsi que l’impact de diverses pratiques agricoles sur leur quantité, qualité et diversité. L’un des objectifs principaux du projet est d’aider les agriculteurs à connaitre quelles pratiques sont néfastes pour le développement des mycorhizes (utilisation de pesticides et de fertilisants chimiques) et lesquelles sont vertueuses (couverts végétaux diversifiés, couverture du sol permanente, semis direct, agroforesterie, utilisation de variétés anciennes…). Une étude réalisée en France a permis de montrer que la pratique du semis direct sous couvert sans l’utilisation de fertilisants azotés chimiques a mené à 35% de mycorhization des racines du blé, alors qu’une autre parcelle labourée et fertilisée a atteint un taux inférieur à 3%. Cette étude a aussi montré qu’il n’y avait quasiment pas de différence entre la quantité d’azote absorbée par le blé fortement mycorhizé et celle absorbée par le blé fertilisé. Les résultats du projet Mycoagra accessibles prochainement vont permettre de guider les agriculteurs dans la gestion de leur exploitation et leur donner des bonnes pratiques pour permettre un bon établissement des mycorhizes dans leurs parcelles, de façon viable.

Access to an outdoor area is essential for Label Rouge, a French quality certification for poultry, organic or more generally free-range poultry systems labelling. Beyond these regulatory obligations, the grazing of wooded land close to the chicken stable must be considered as an integral part of the farming system. While animal welfare is often highlighted, the outdoor area can add value on various other aspects such as environmental (promote pollinators, mitigate climate change), responses to societal expectations (beauty of the landscape, quality of the product), economic benefits (sale of timber, diversification of products), breeder's well-being. In France, European leading producer of free-range poultry, thanks to the close collaboration among the poultry sector's, stakeholders, a practical and simplified method have been created to evaluate the benefits provided by the outdoor area. This complete method was developed to be used by breeders and technicians on a regular basis. It is constituted of several already existing tools such as the EBENE app which allows a quick and hands-on way of evaluating animal welfare (size of the feeder, animal behaviour...), or the MERCI protocol focused on biomass production assessment (growth survey of trees and vegetation covers). Others protocols were added to the method to complete the assessment panel: soil structure tests by hole-digging, analysis of the breeders' bookkeeping, or insect traps to follow biodiversity. The monitoring of these indicators makes it possible to measure and estimate how much each service is provided by the system, and to highlight ways of improvement.

L'accès à une zone ouverte est indispensable dans les parcours volailles certifiés Label Rouge, Agriculture Biologique et d'autres labels garantissant un élevage plein air. Au-delà de la simple conformité avec le cahier des charges des certifications, l'insertion d'éléments arborés dans un parcours volaille peut rendre des services au niveau de l'exploitation. Bien que le bien-être animal soit souvent mis en avant comme la problématique principale, les parcours volailles agroforestiers peuvent aussi apporter une réelle valeur ajoutée sur bien d'autres aspects: environnementaux (promouvoir la présence de pollinisateurs, diminuer le changement climatique), sociaux (beauté du paysage, qualité des produits), économiques (vente des produits bois, diversification des productions), et aussi sur la qualité de vie de l'éleveur. En France, un des pays leaders de la production de volailles en Europe, un projet commun entre les différents acteurs a permis la mise en place d'un outil de mesure pratique pour la mesure des services rendus par les parcours. Elle est constituée de divers outils dont l'application EBENE qui permet une rapide évaluation du bien-être animal, ou le protocole MERCI permettant de mesurer la production de biomasse des parcours. D'autres protocoles ont aussi été ajoutés afin de compléter le panel de cet outil : tests-bêches pour la structure du sol, analyse de la comptabilité de l'exploitation, ou bien des pièges à insectes pour suivre la biodiversité. Grâce au suivi de ces divers indicateurs on parvient à évaluer de façon globale l'impact des parcours volailles agroforestiers, et ainsi orienter les pratiques des éleveurs.

Hedgerows are ubiquitous in the English landscape and an important part of the cultural heritage of the countryside. Hedgerows have always been regarded as multi-functional. Traditionally hedge management provided a variety of wood products including firewood, but as labour become more expensive and wood was replaced with fossil fuels, the practice of managing hedges for firewood was lost. Currently many UK hedges are flailed annually or neglected altogether; both practices are eventually detrimental. Hedges need periodic rejuvenation work by either laying or coppicing, both relatively time consuming and costly management options. Identifying practical economic uses for hedges and hedge material could offer a solution and encourage farmers to manage their hedges sustainably. Managing hedges for woodfuel through coppicing provides an opportunity to rejuvenate hedges restoring their economic value and value the wider landscape. Managing hedges by coppicing has the potential to: - improve hedgerow vigour, longevity and value to wildlife - provide timber, woodchips and logs which can be used on farm or sold - reduce the cost of annual management Although markets for hedgerow woodchip are in the early stages of development, those able to harvest and use woodfuel from hedges have the opportunity to make the most of this underutilised resource and bring our hedges back into the farm business.

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Most agroforestry systems on UK farms have been established by the farmer who is also the landowner or tenant. However, many famers lack both time and specialist knowledge to plant and care for trees and the capital to invest in trees. In addition, trees are a long-term investment and the uncertainty of tenure and differences of opinion between farmers and landlords are both known disincentives to establishing new agroforestry systems . Dartington Estate in south-west England is delivering agroforestry in an innovative way not seen in the UK before, through a multi-tiered arrangement of land owner, farm tenant and tree license holders. In this model, the tenant farmers manage the rows between trees as part of their 7-year silage/arable rotation and are financially compensated by the landlord for the area lost to the tree rows by the licensees. The investment in the trees is made by three separate businesses; Luscombe Drinks elderflower trees), The Apricot Centre (apple trees) and Salthouse & Peppermongers (Sichuan pepper trees). These businesses specialise in tree crops and have a market incentive to make the tree crops work to meet the market demands for their products. A licence to grow trees on the strip of land was granted to the businesses for the tree strips, with the farmers remaining in management control of the land upon which the trees are planted and able to claim basic farm payment on the area. However, the tree licensees needed the security of being able to use the piece of land on which they're planted for a sufficient period to see a return on their investment. The solution was that the land owner, Dartington Hall Trust, provided a separate formal pledge to ensure the continuation of the licence on the same terms regardless of the tenant.

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Walnut trees produce quality timber and the healthy nuts are popular among consumers. Combining both goals is possible with certain varieties. Prices for timber in Flanders of these double aptitude varieties range between 250 and 500 € per m³ and require a growth period of about 50 years. Stems need to be at least 3 m high for processing. For each 50 cm of height you add to the branch-free stem length by pruning in the first years, the first profitable nut production is delayed 1 year. Higher stems mean higher tree crowns, increasing the harvesting labor intensity and costs. Non-ripe green nuts can be harvested (early July) in their husks to make liquor or walnut flavored lambic beer. Around 500 kg of nuts is enough to produce about 10000 L of liquor. Walnuts for direct consumption are harvested in September – November. This can be done by shaking and picking up the nuts using a sweeper with a capacity of 3000 kg nuts per day. After scraping off the husks and sorting them by size, nuts can be shipped almost directly to the store to be sold as fresh walnuts or they can be dried. Fresh walnuts are interesting in terms of profitability as they don’t require a lot of processing and storage room and are heavier than dried ones (drying causes 60% of weight loss). Moreover, they are a niche product with high prices per kg. Small and/or damaged nuts can be dried and sold as peeled dry nuts, but this requires more time and equipment increasing the processing cost. They can also be used for walnut oil. Prices for cold pressed walnut oil (efficiency of 60% using an adjusted olive oil press) go up to € 40 - 50 per L. The press-cake can be sold as an ingredient for foods like cookies or chocolates and nutshells can be pressed to briquettes. More research is needed on the valorization of waste-products.

Walnoot levert kwaliteitshout en gezonde noten. Beide doelen kunnen tegelijkertijd beoogd worden. Walnoothout vereist een minimale groeitijd van 50 jaar en prijzen variëren tussen 250 - 500 € per m³. Een takvrije, rechte stam van minimaal 3 m is een vereiste voor de afnemer. Hou er rekening mee dat je door het opsnoeien van elke extra 50 cm takvrije stam, de eerste rendabele walnootoogst met ong. 1 jaar uitstelt. Door de hogere stam en hogere kroon stijgt ook de arbeidskosten voor oogst en onderhoud. Onrijpe noten worden in de bolster geoogst (begin juli) als ingrediënt voor likeur of lambiek bier met walnootsmaak. 500 kg van deze noten levert zo’n 10000 liter likeur. Walnoten voor directe consumptie worden geoogst in september - november d.m.v. schudden en oprapen van de noten met een automatische zuiger (capaciteit 3000 kg noten per dag). Na het verwijderen van bolsterresten (raspen) en sorteren van de noten op grootte, gaan ze bijna direct naar de winkel voor verkoop als verse walnoten of kunnen ze gedroogd worden. Verse walnoten blijken heel rendabel door het weinige werk en opslagruimte en hun hogere gewicht per noot (60% gewichtsverlies door drogen). Ze zijn een niche product met een hoge prijs per kg. Kleinere en/of beschadigde ‘afvalnoten’ kunnen verkocht worden als gepelde droge noten, maar dit vraagt meer tijd en materiaal wat de verwerkingskost opdrijft. Ze kunnen ook gebruikt worden voor walnootolie. Prijzen voor koudgeperste walnootolie liggen 40 tot 50 € per liter (efficiëntie van 60% is haalbaar met een aangepaste olijfpers). De perskoek kan vermarkt worden als ingrediënt voor koekjes en pralines. Notendoppen kunnen geperst worden tot briketten. Meer onderzoek is weliswaar nodig naar de vermarkting van deze afvalproducten.

An increasing demand seems to exist by consumers for the production of high-quality chicken-meat or eggs with attention for animal welfare. At present, several poultry-farms are already trying to meet this demand by providing a free range area for their laying hens or broiler chickens. Chickens are animals that likes tree shade by origin and because of the resulting preference for shade? they often only make use of the free range area to a limited extent. This can in part be coped with planting woody vegetation (such as short rotation coppice or fruit trees) in the free range area or by using existing perennial cropping systems (such as orchards) as a free range area for poultry. This furthermore contributes to the efficient use of available farmland. Part of the produced fruits or nuts can possibly be integrated in the feed of the chickens, when the prices of the fruits drop. This is for example the case for flour of hazelnuts or acorns. In case of young trees or shrubs, tree protection against the chickens may be necessary because excessive rooting may damage the roots or make them surface which may lead to production-losses or even dying off of the plants. To further increase the actual use of the free range area, mobile stables can be used which are moved through the free range area, one can maintain a limited number of mature hens which are familiar with the free range area and are followed by the young chickens or food and drinking facilities can be placed at further distances in the free range area instead of in or nearby the stable.

Vanuit de consument blijkt een groeiende aandacht te bestaan voor de productie van kwaliteitsvol kippenvlees of eieren met aandacht voor dierenwelzijn. Vanuit dit oogpunt wordt reeds op verschillende landbouwbedrijven een vrije uitloop ter beschikking gesteld aan leg- en/of vleeskippen. Kippen zijn van oorsprong echter bosvogels en wegens de daaruit volgende voorkeur voor dekking maken zij vaak slechts beperkt gebruik van deze uitloop. Dit kan ten dele verholpen worden door de aanplant van houtige gewassen (bijv. korte omloop hout, fruitbomen) in de buitenloop van kippen of het opkweken van kippen in bestaande houtige aanplanten (bijv. bestaande fruitboomgaard). Dit draagt bovendien bij tot een efficiënter gebruik van de beschikbare landbouwgrond. Eventueel kan een deel van de gerealiseerde vruchtproductie bijgemengd worden in het voeder van het pluimvee. Dit is bijvoorbeeld het geval voor hazelnootmeel of eikels. Bij een jonge aanplant kan het wel nodig zijn de planten te beschermen tegen de kippen omdat deze de wortels bloot kunnen krabben wat tot productieverlies of afsterven kan leiden. Om het uitloopgebruik verder te verbeteren kan gebruik gemaakt worden van mobiele stallen die verplaatst worden in de buitenloop, het behouden van enkele oudere leer-hennen die reeds vertrouwd zijn met de buitenloop en door de kuikens gevolgd worden of het aanbieden van voedsel en drinken in de buitenloop in plaats van in of vlak naast de stal.

The integration of pigs in agroforestry systems can offer multiple benefits such as the efficient use of land, increased animal welfare and a better image for the farmer. Thereby, the use of breeds which are adapted for living outdoors is advisable. These include amongst others Tamworth Pigs, Duroc or Mangalica's. Regarding the crop component, a broad range of tree and shrub species can be used. Oak (Quercus spp.), walnut (Juglans spp.), chestnut (Castanea sativa Miller), hazelnut (Corylus spp.) and willow (Salix spp.) are of particular interest if the fruits or twigs of the trees are to be used as feed for the pigs. Tuberous plants such as Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus L.) or chicory (Cichorium L.) can be used in the understory layer to stimulate the rooting behavior of the pigs. Alternatively, plants with medicinal properties for pigs such as daisy (Bellis perennis L:) can be used. Pigs can damage the trees by amongst others scrubbing, biting or browsing of twigs, buds or fruits. Depending on the purpose of the tree component, e.g. the production of fruits or quality timber, the protection of the trees against the pigs is thus often indispensable. This can either be realized through the installation of a solid enclosure or the use of electric fences. Depending on the site-specific circumstances (e.g. soil conditions, vegetation) and the density of pigs it can furthermore be advisable to apply a fast grazing rotation to avoid the formation of bare soil and subsequent negative effects such as nutrient losses and erosion.

Het gebruik van varkens in agroforestry systemen kan meerdere voordelen bieden zoals het efficiënt gebruik van ruimte, een hoger dierenwelzijn en een beter imago voor de landbouwer. Hierbij worden best rassen gebruikt die aangepast zijn aan het leven in buitenomstandigheden. Denk hierbij bijvoorbeeld aan Tamworth, Duroc, of Mangalic's. Wat betreft de gewascomponent is in principe een brede range aan boom- en struiksoorten mogelijk. Indien het de bedoeling is om een deel van de geproduceerde vruchten en twijgen als voeder te gebruiken voor de varkens dan zijn in het bijzonder eik (Quercus spp.), walnoot (Juglans spp.), kastanje (Castanea sativa), hazelaar (Corylus spp.) en wilg (Salix spp.) aangeraden. In de kruidlaag kunnen knolgewassen zoals aardpeer (Helianthus tuberosus L.) of cichorei (Cichorium L.) gebruikt worden die het wroeten stimuleren of planten met een medicinale werking voor varkens zoals madeliefje (Bellis perennis). Varkens kunnen schade aan bomen aanrichten door onder meer schuren, bijten of het eten van twijgen, knoppen of vruchten. Afhankelijk van het doel van de boomcomponent, bijvoorbeeld bij productie van vruchten of kwaliteitshout, is een goede bescherming tegen de varkens dan ook vaak onontbeerlijk. Dit kan enerzijds door een stevige omheining te voorzien of anderzijds door het plaatsen van stroomdraad. Afhankelijk van de locale omstandigheden (vb. bodemcondities, begroeiing) en de gebruikte varkensdensiteit kan het voorts aangeraden zijn een voldoende snelle beweidings-rotatie te voorzien om negatieve effecten zoals nutriëntenverliezen en erosie ten gevolge van een kale bodem te vermijden.

Cistus ladanifer L. (CL), an evergreen spontaneous forage shrub, well adapted to semi-arid conditions, poor and acidic soils, and abundant in marginal fields in most Mediterranean countries. It can compete with cork oak trees under severe drought conditions and increases fire propagation risk. In the Alentejo region, a semiarid region, it is an extremely abundant endogenous resource, one of the first plants to colonize soils after a wild fire, it can dominate the understory. CL nutritional value as a fodder is usually considered to be low, typically due to its high content on antinutritional compounds, such as condensed tannins. However recent studies have shown that CL may have beneficial effects on ruminants, increasing digestive utilization of dietary protein, acting as anthelmintic and as antioxidants and helping to prevent bloat. CL can also be used as silage additives to reduce proteolysis of high protein forages during ensiling. CL can also be used as an alternative forage source in a lamb's diet, improving the fatty acid composition of meat lipids. This usage provides an additional source of fodder and contributes to the control of the species and reduces fire risk, in these silvopastoral areas. The Cistus Rumen project is aimed at promoting the “Sustainable use of Rockrose (Cistus ladanifer L.) in small ruminants - Increase of the competitiveness and reduction of the environmental impact”.

A esteva, Cistus ladanifer L. (CL), é um arbusto forrageiro espontâneo e persistente, bem-adaptado a condições semiáridas, solos pobres e ácidos, e amplamente disponível nas áreas marginais da maioria dos países mediterrânicos, capaz de competir com os sobreiros em condições de seca severa e aumentar o risco de propagação de incêndios. No Alentejo, uma região semiárida, é um recurso endógeno extremamente abundante, uma das primeiras plantas a colonizar os solos após um incêndio florestal, podendo mesmo dominar o subcoberto. O valor nutricional da esteva como forragem era geralmente considerado baixo, tipicamente devido ao seu alto conteúdo em compostos anti-nutritivos, como taninos condensados. Estudos recentes têm mostrado que a esteva pode ter efeitos benéficos nos ruminantes, aumentando a utilização digestiva da proteína, atuando como anti-helmíntico e como antioxidantes e prevenindo o inchaço. Também pode ser utilizada como aditivo na silagem para reduzir a proteólise das forrageiras hiperproteicas durante a ensilagem. A esteva pode também utilizar-se na dieta de borregos, melhorando a composição em ácidos gordos dos lípidos da carne. Esta utilização poderá fornecer uma fonte adicional de forragem e contribuir para o controle das espécies, e a redução do risco de incêndio, nessas áreas silvopastoris. O projeto Cistus Rumen visa “promover o uso sustentável da esteva (Cistus ladanifer L.) em pequenos ruminantes - Aumento da competitividade e redução do impacto ambiental”.

In a global condition of scarcity of resources available for agriculture, including the “land resource”, there is the need to identify new approach for land management. Organic farming and, even more, animal husbandry, are increasingly embracing agroforestry models to reach the goal of achieving sustainable intensification of agricultural production. The achievement of this goal, however, will need an increase of knowledge about the applicability of the various forms of agroforestry in local rural contexts, also in light of the effects of climate change. Through the AFINET project, cooperation and knowledge sharing among stakeholders is promoted; in the last meeting of the Italian Regional Agroforestry Innovation Network (RAIN), various stakeholders participated in a round table with representatives of the “Bio-district of Via Amerina and the Forre”. Stakeholders had the opportunities to know this innovative approach for a sustainable rural development. Organic farming is a method of cultivation and breeding that allows the implementation of a production model that reduces the over-exploitation of natural resources, especially soil, water and air. Agroforestry has many points in common with organic farming and therefore, the concept of Bio-district can be applied starting from the RAIN and implemented in an agroforestry scheme. Within the same system, farms with different productive aims (crops or breeding) can share the land as a common factor to have mutual benefits.

In una situazione globale di scarsità di risorse, compresa la risorsa terra, è necessario identificare un nuovo approccio per la gestione del territorio. L'agricoltura biologica e, ancor di più, la zootecnia, stanno sempre più abbracciando l'agroforestry per raggiungere l'obiettivo di ottenere un'intensificazione sostenibile della produzione agricola. Il raggiungimento di questo obiettivo, tuttavia, dovrà necessariamente passare attraverso un aumento delle conoscenze sull'applicabilità delle varie forme di agroforestry in contesti rurali locali, anche alla luce degli effetti del cambiamento climatico. Attraverso il progetto AFINET, viene promossa la cooperazione e la condivisione delle conoscenze tra le parti interessate; nell'ultimo incontro della Rete Regionale per l'Innovazione Agroforestale italiana (RAIN) i partecipanti hanno preso parte a una tavola rotonda con i rappresentanti del Biodistretto della Via Amerina e delle Forre. Gli stakeholder hanno avuto l'opportunità di conoscere questo approccio innovativo per uno sviluppo territoriale sostenibile. L'agricoltura biologica è un metodo di coltivazione e allevamento che consente lo sviluppo di un modello di produzione che riduce lo sfruttamento eccessivo delle risorse naturali in particolare suolo, acqua e aria. L'agroforestry ha molti punti in comune con l'agricoltura biologica e, pertanto, il concetto di Biodistretto può essere applicato partendo dalla RAIN e implementato in una chiave agroforestale. All'interno dello stesso sistema, le aziende agricole con diversi obiettivi produttivi (colture o allevamento) possono condividere la terra come un fattore comune per avere benefici reciproci.

The Grazing Bank (Laidunpankki.fi) facilitates contact between land owners and animal owners. Nowadays, not every farm owns animals and not every animal farm has access to suficient suitable grazing land. In this online tool, it is easy to search for grazing land available for leasing (meadows, fields, forest pastures), or animals (cattle, sheep, horses) if you want to lease your own land for grazing. In addition, the web service contains information on service providers (fencing, animal transport, animal control, fighting invasive species), as well as other services like shepherd holidays. Practical information on e.g. animals stocking rates, investments costs or agri-environment subsidies is also available. The advisory organization ProAgria can assist in the management plan of the areas of the agreement. The web service has a national scope. Similar land bank services already exist in some other countries too, either at national, regional or local level, and a similar concept could be applied in more countries. For instance, a grazing bank would be a very interesting tool as forest fires prevention method, contributing to reverse land abandonment and assist new generations to make a living in the countryside

Laidunpankki helpottaa maanomistajien ja eläintenomistajien välistä yhteydenpitoa. Nykyään jokaisella maatilalla ei ole eläimiä, eikä jokaisella eläintilalla ole pääsyä riittävään alaan sopivaa laidunmaata. Laidunpankin nettityökalussa on helppo etsiä vuokramaata (niittyjä, peltoja, metsäalueita) tai eläimiä (nautoja, lampaita, hevosia), jos haluaa vuokrata oman maansa laiduntamista varten. Lisäksi verkkopalvelu sisältää tietoja palveluntarjoajista (aitaukset, eläinkuljetukset, eläinten valvonta, vieraslajien torjunta) sekä muista palveluista, kuten paimenlomista. Käytännön tietoa esimerkiksi eläintiheyksistä, investointikustannuksista tai maatalouden ympäristötuista on myös saatavilla. Asiantuntijapalvelu ProAgria (www.proagria.fi) voi auttaa sopimusalueiden hoitosuunnitelman laatimisessa. Verkkopalvelulla on kansallinen ulottuvuus. Samanlaisia laidunpankkipalveluja on jo olemassa muissa maissa joko kansallisella, alueellisella tai paikallisella tasolla, ja samanlaista konseptia voitaisiin soveltaa entistä useammassa maassa. Laidunpankki olisi erittäin mielenkiintoinen työkalu esimerkiksi metsäpalojen ehkäisyssä, ja se voi myös avustaa maaseudun autioitumisen pysäyttämisessä ja auttaa uusia sukupolvia elämään maaseudulla.

The olive tree is a rustic plant whose cultivation has extended beyond its area of origin and in some of the expansion areas, winters can occasionally be harsh. In 2018, in central-northern Italy, in the face of a late frost, the olive trees suffered more or less severe frost damage. With slight frost damage, phylloptosis and some loss of production occurred, while with medium-intensity damage the plant suffered desiccation of the secondary branches. The severely frost affected plants that have partially or totally dried out. It is possible to reconstitute the plant through pruning; in case of slight damage a normal intensity pruning should be applied (20-25% of crown removed); for a medium damage, it is necessary the removal of the dry parts in correspondence of new green sprouts and the thinning of upper areas of foliage to let the light penetrate in the lower parts. The plant is reduced to stimulate the emission of branches in the ventral area that will rebuild the damaged secondary branches. In the case of serious damage, reconstitution can take place by pollarding (recovery time 3 years), if the olive tree has released numerous shoots from the backs of the branches. In the most serious cases, cutting the whole tree is necessary (recovery time: 5 years). In this case, a selection of the best suckers coming from those ones appearing from the stump in 1 or 2 years should be chosen to reconstitute the olive tree

L'olivo è una pianta rustica la cui coltivazione si è estesa oltre il suo areale di origine e in alcune delle zone di espansione, come l'Italia centro-settentrionale, gli inverni possono essere occasionalmente rigidi. Nel 2018, a fronte di una gelata tardiva, gli olivi hanno subito danni da freddo più o meno gravi. Con danni lievi si è verificata filloptosi e perdita di produzione, mentre nelle zone inferiori più umide sono stati registrati danni di media intensità e la pianta ha subito disseccamenti della zona secondaria. Le piante colpite gravemente si sono seccate parzialmente o totalmente. È possibile ricostituire la pianta attraverso la potatura; in caso di danno lieve andrà applicata una potatura di intensità normale (20-25% chioma asportata); per un danno medio è necessaria l'asportazione delle parti secche in corrispondenza di nuovi ricacci verdi e lo sfoltimento di zone superiori di chioma per far penetrare la luce nelle parti basse; si riduce la pianta su una cima più bassa per stimolare l'emissione di rami in zona ventrale che andranno a ricostituire il secondario danneggiato. In caso di danni gravi la ricostituzione può avvenire mediante capitozzatura (tempo di recupero 3 anni), se l'olivo ha emesso numerosi germogli dal dorso delle branche. Nei casi più gravi è necessaria la stroncatura (tempo di ricostituzione 5 anni). In questo caso dai numerosi polloni che in 1 o 2 anni si origineranno dalla ceppaia, se ne scelgono alcuni migliori per ricostituire la pianta.

Traditional olive groves are suffering from severe abandonment. The combination of olive, rustic chicken and wild asparagus (Asparagus acutifolius) can be an opportunity to increase farmer's income and to contrast the abandonment. This complex system promotes positive economic and environmental synergies among the components: poultry benefits from the natural grass, trees benefits from the fertilization provided by chicken. Hence, the management costs, in terms of reducing the weed control, limiting the need to fertilize and to provide chemical inputs are reduced. Wild asparagus is a perennial plant that can be cultivated long the olive tree rows at a distance of 30 - 30 cm. 30,000-40,000 plants ha-1 can produce about 1.5 tons ha-1 of asparagus. Chickens, on the other hand, must be slow-growing with a strong grazing attitude so it is important to use adapted breeds like the variety "Collo Nudo". Each chicken need a grazing area of about 10 m2 and the shelters must be mobile in order to always guarantee fresh and green fodder for the animals. The shelter can contain up to 16 chicken m-2, for a weight of 30 kg m-2.

Gli oliveti tradizionali stanno soffrendo un forte abbandono. La consociazione di olivo, pollo rustico e asparago selvatico ((Asparagus acutifolius) può essere una soluzione per aumentare il reddito dell'agricoltore e combattere l'abbandono. Con questa pratica, i problemi delle colture (esempio: le erbe infestanti, i parassiti, ecc.) divengono risorse per l’animale allevato e viceversa, i problemi dell’allevamento (es. concentrazioni di pollina) divengono risorse per la coltura. Non solo si produce di più, quindi, ma si risparmia sui costi (mangimi, diserbo, trattamenti antiparassitari) e sull’impatto ambientale delle singole colture e/o allevamenti. L’asparago selvatico è una pianta perenne di lunga durata. Va coltivato dove non intralcia le normali rotazioni delle altre colture. Le piantine di asparago devono essere piantate a 30-40 cm di distanza lungo la fila delgi olivi, in solchetti di 3-5 cm di profondità. Con 30 - 40000 piante ha-1, si raccolgono 1,5
tonnellate per ettaro di turioni. I polli invece, devono essere a lento accrescimento con forte attitudine pascolativa come la varietà "Collo Nudo". L'area di pascolo a loro disposizione deve essere di 10 m2/capo e i ricoveri devono essere mobili in modo da garantire sempre foraggio verde agli animali. I ricoveri mobili possono contenere una densità di 16 polli/m2 con un massimo di 30 kg di peso vivo m-2, visto che serve solo come riparo notturno.

Iris (Iris spp.) is a hardy species usually cultivated in the border of arable lands on soil not adapted to other species. Hence, iris can growth in combination with olive groves in the border of the terraced without hampering the management of olive trees. In Tuscany region, Italy, the most common iris species is Iris pallida. Iris cuttings can be planted in September at a distance of 25-30 cm between the olive tree rows. The species spontaneously growth and the management scheme requires just the control of natural grass. Harvesting takes place three years after planting, from mid-July to mid-September. The plant is removed from the ground and processed, from the rhizome the cuttings are separated, which will be used for the next planting. The rhizomes, cleaned from the leaves and the roots, are either peeled for the production of "white" rhizome, or broken with the skin for the production of "black" rhizome. The cultivation cycle is 3 years long and about 3.5 tons ha-1 of dry product can be obtained. From the rhizomes an essential oil called "Irone" is extracted, which besides being the most odorous constituent of the essence is an excellent perfume fixer, of which it reduces the volatility and therefore the evaporation maintaining the smell of perfume longer.

Il giaggiolo (Iris spp.) è una pianta rustica coltivata ai margini dei campi terrazzati, in terreni spesso non adatti ad altre colture. Si presta molto bene alla consociazione negli oliveti terrazzati potendo essere coltivato ai margini dei terrazzi senza intralciare le operazioni colturali necessarie in oliveto. Nella regione Toscana, la specie più utilizzata è l'Iris pallida. Dalla metà di settembre si effettua la piantagione delle barbatelle a 25-30 cm l'una dall'altra, lavorando il terreno a mano e piantando tra i filari di ulivi, in aree alto collinari e montane. Dopo la piantagione, gli Iris crescono in modo spontaneo, con la sola accortezza di liberarli dalle piante infestanti, il principale pericolo per la coltura. La raccolta è effettuata dopo tre anni dalla piantagione, da metà luglio a metà settembre. La pianta viene tolta dal terreno e lavorata, dal rizoma sono separate le barbatelle, che serviranno per la successiva piantagione. I rizomi puliti da foglie e radici, sono lavorati e sono sia sbucciati per la produzione di rizoma “bianco”, sia spezzato con la buccia per la produzione di rizoma “nero”. Il ciclo produttivo del giaggiolo è triennale e da un ettaro si ricavano circa 35 q. di prodotto secco. Da questi rizomi si estrae un olio essenziale chiamato “Irone”, che oltre ad essere il costituente più odoroso dell’essenza è un ottimo fissatore dei profumi, di cui riduce la volatilità e quindi l’evaporazione mantenendo l’odore di profumo più a lungo.

Olive processing at oil mills, in addition to extra-virgin olive oil (about 10-20% of the olive weight), produces bio-residues such as olive pomace (about 50% of the olive weight) and vegetation water. The bio-residues management is very important because the olive oil mill wastes have a great impact on soil and water environments because of the high phyto-toxicity (phenol, lipid and organic acids) and their management is one of the main problems of the olive oil industry. During the extraction process water is used for washing the olives and e to fluidize the olive pomace in the mixing phase. In this context, Calabria region supported a project aimed to implement an integrated process able to recover water and its valuable compounds (in particular polyphenols). The process allows to separate such components managing water through microfiltration and ultrafiltration avoiding to use other technologies like solvent treatment, distillation or centrifugation. The valuable compounds can be used in pharmaceutical and cosmetics sectors, generate additional revenue for oil mills and olive farms. Moreover, water can be re-used in the oil mills allowing to save addition use of water as well as providing environmental benefits.

Dalla lavorazione delle olive si hanno: un 10-20% del loro peso rappresentato da olio, circa un 50% sansa ed il resto acqua di vegetazione. Se a quest'ultima, si aggiunge l'acqua usata durante il processo estrattivo per il lavaggio in lavatrice e quella che si aggiunge durante la fase di gramolazione per fluidificare la pasta di olive, ci si rende conto come i volumi di acque reflue del frantoio siano imponenti. Attraverso il progetto APQ (Accordo di Programma Quadro) in materia di Ricerca Scientifica e Innovazione Tecnologica nella Regione Calabria, è stato effettuato lo studio di un processo integrato a membrana, idoneo al recupero di acqua, di sostanze organiche e sostanze ad alto valore aggiunto come i polifenoli, ed è stato messo a punto il trattamento delle acque di vegetazione e di lavaggio dei frantoi. È stato realizzato un sistema integrato a membrana per la separazione delle componenti: trattamento delle acque reflue con sistemi di microfiltrazione e ultrafiltrazione che offrono innumerevoli vantaggi rispetto ad altre tecnologie basate sul trattamento con solventi, distillazione o centrifugazione. È quindi possibile recuperare queste sostanze e sfruttarle al meglio aggiungendo reddito alle aziende olivicole-olearie. Importante è la possibilità di un riutilizzo delle acque così trattate, che potrebbero essere reimmesse nel ciclo di lavorazione dei frantoi, con benefici sia in termini di risparmio di risorse idriche, sia di tutela dell'ambiente.

Economic growth has usually been at the expense of the environment. The need to change our development to a more sustainable economic model, makes circular bioeconomy to be part of the solution to address some of the most eminent European and global challenges. Given that most products derived from fossil fuels can be obtained from biomass, either woody or other plant species, the opportunities for agroforestry are manifold. Agroforestry is known for the diversification of products that can be obtained in an integrative way in the same land unit, providing a great variety of raw materials from trees, crops or livestock that may be transformed into bio-based products. Trees provide timber but also wood-based textile fibers. Prunning and fellings in forests provide biomass that can be used as pellets, biochar, mulching... Birch sap is used for drinks and sweeteners, juices can also be obtained from spruce needles... Crops can be used for carbon fibers, cellulose, acids with a wide range of uses... Agricultural waste can be converted in bioplastics. Textiles can be obtained from powdered milk, bone meal can serve as fertilizer, dairy whey can be converted in a green solvent... These are only a few of the examples of bioproducts that could be obtained in agroforestry systems

El crecimiento económico ha sido en las últimas décadas a expensas del medioambiente. La necesidad de cambiar nuestro desarrollo a un modelo económico más sostenible, convierte a la bioeconomía circular en parte de la solución para solventar algunos de los principales retos europeos y globales. Dado que la mayoría de productos derivados de combustibles fósiles pueden ser obtenidos a partir de biomasa vegetal, este nuevo enfoque ofrece grandes oportunidades para los sitemas agroforestales. Dichos sistemas son conocidos por la diversificación de productos que se pueden obtener de forma integrada en la misma unidad de terreno, proporcionando una gran variedad de materiales derivados de los árboles, de los cultivos o del ganado que pueden ser transformados en bio-productos. Los árboles proporcionan madera, pero también fibras textiles. La poda y las cortas de los mismos proporcionan biomasa que puede usarse para pellets, biochar, mulch... La sabia del abedul se usa para bebidas y edulcorantes. Se pueden obtener zunos de acículas de pícea... También de los cultivos se pueden obtener fibras de carbono, celulosa, ácidos... para una gran variedad de usos... Los restos agrícolas pueden convertirse en bio-plásticos. También se pueden obtener fibras textiles a partir de leche en polvo, la harina de huesos puede usarse como fertilizante, y el suero puede convertirse en solvente... Éstos son solo algunos de los ejemplo de bio-productos que pueden obtenerse en sistemas agroforestales.

Ascertaining and maintaining good production of fruit trees requires adequate management. Particular attention should be paid to the consistent pruning of the trees because this affects the light availability in the tree crown with increased light resulting initially in more flower buds that have to be pruned and later on in sweeter fruit of larger size and better color. The different stages throughout the lifecycle of a fruit tree require different pruning regimes. Right before or after planting the fruit tree, the main branch(es) which will constitute the lasting basis of the tree should be selected. Thereby, either 3-4 equivalent side branches can be selected and grow while the central leader is suppressed by pruning to approximately the same height as the side branches to create a wide crown. Alternatively, the central branch leader can be selected as a single main branch to create a smaller (and higher) tree. Thereafter, until the start of fruit production, yearly formative pruning is required to shape the tree. When trees start to bear fruit maintenance pruning is conducted to preserve the tree shape and produce sufficient quantities of high-quality fruits. The tree shape with one main (apical) branch generally results in a higher quantity of sweet fruit of better quality when compared to the type with 3-4 main branches where the inner branches often receive less light but the shorter ones are easier to harvest reducing man power needs. Trees of the former type furthermore generally start to bear fruit faster and are more easily to combine with the use of agricultural machinery because of their narrower shape.

Fruitbomen vereisen een zorgvuldig beheer om een goede fruit productie te verkrijgen en te behouden. In het bijzonder dient aandacht besteed te worden aan het snoeien van de bomen aangezien dit de lichtbeschikbaarheid in de kroon beïnvloed waarbij meer licht initieel resulteert in meer bloembotten, die gedeeltelijk weggesnoeid worden, en zoeter fruit met een mooie grootte en goede kleur. De verschillende stadia in de levenscyclus van een fruitboom vereisen een specifiek snoeiregime. Vlak voor of vlak na het planten worden de hoofdtakken geselecteerd die de blijvende basis van de boomvorm vormen. Hierbij kunnen enerzijds 3-4 gelijkwaardige zijtakken geselecteerd worden die doorgroeien, terwijl de groei van de harttak onderdrukt wordt. Een andere optie is om enkel de harttak te behouden om zo een smallere (hogere) boom te bekomen. Vervolgens, tot aan de start van de fruitproductie, wordt een jaarlijkse vormsnoei uitgevoerd. Eens de bomen vrucht beginnen dragen wordt onderhoudssnoei toegepast om de gecreëerde boomvorm te behouden en voldoende hoeveelheden fruit van hoge kwaliteit te produceren. De boomvorm met een centrale harttak levert meestal een hogere hoeveelheid fruit van goede kwaliteit dan de vorm met 3-4 zijtakken waarbij de binnenste takken vaak minder licht krijgen. Bomen met deze groeivorm dragen daarnaast vaak sneller vrucht en zijn door hun beperktere breedte vaak eenvoudiger te combineren met landbouwmachines. Door hun grotere hoogte kan de oogst daarentegen moeilijker zijn dan bij de boomvorm met 3-4 gesteltakken.

In a silvoarable agroforestry field, "the tree row understory" is defined as the area under the tree canopies (e.g. strips of land below the tree rows in alley cropping systems). It is generally recommended to maintain a width of at least 2m for this zone in Belgium and it may be advisable to broaden the strip after a couple of years since establishment, for instance to harvest fruit more easily. In this zone it is often difficult to cultivate the main crop. Leaving this tree row understorey undisturbed can, however, result in the development of undesirable plants, which can then spread throughout the field in arable lands. Furthermore, uncontrolled growth of grasses and herbs can reduce tree growth. Although the management of this area often seems to be a challenge, a broad range of options exists, depending on the main objective of the trees, the type of understorey vegetation, the available machinery and the amount of time the farmer can spend. Possibilities include, amongst others, mowing before flowering which can also reduce the spread of weeds in the field. Alternatively, mulch materials could be used or the area can be kept free from vegetation. Although the latter option may be beneficial for e.g. nut harvesting or fertilizing activities, the additional ecological advantages of an understorey vegetation, such as the creation of food and a habitat for beneficial biodiversity (pollination and natural pest control), will be missing. On the other hand, sowing a mixture of understory cover crops or flowers may suppress weed growth and simultaneously create habitat for beneficial biodiversity. The tree row understorey could also be an integral part of the production system itself, e.g. by introducing short rotation coppice, berries, etc.

Op een alley cropping agroforestryperceel vind je doorgaans een onbewerkte of onbeteelde strook onder de bomenrij. In België wordt algemeen aangeraden om een breedte van minimum 2m te hanteren voor deze zone. Het kan aangeraden zijn om deze breedte enkele jaren na het planten te verhogen, bijvoorbeeld om de oogst van noten en/of fruit te vergemakkelijken. In deze zone is het vaak moeilijk om de hoofdteelten te telen. Het onbeheerd laten van deze strook kan echter leiden tot de groei van ongewenste planten die vervolgens het perceel kunnen koloniseren of die de groei van de boomcomponent nadelig kunnen beïnvloeden. Hoewel het beheer van deze zone vaak niet eenvoudig is, bestaat er een brede waaier aan opties, afhankelijk van het beoogde doel van de boomcomponent, het type vegetatie in deze zone, de beschikbare machines en de tijd die de landbouwer kan besteden aan het beheer. Tot de mogelijkheden behoort onder meer een maaibeheer, wat tevens de kolonisatie van de akkerbouwzone door ongewenste planten kan beperken. Een alternatief is het toepassen van een mulch of het volledig vegetatievrij houden van deze strook. Hoewel deze laatste optie gunstig kan zijn in het kader van het oogsten van fruit of bemestingsactiviteiten gaan hierbij echter veel van de mogelijke ecologische voordelen verloren, zoals het creëren van habitat voor nuttige organismen (bv bestuivers en natuurlijke plaagbestrijders). Door de zaai van bloemenmengsels of groenbedekkers wordt daarentegen de groei van onkruid tegengegaan terwijl er gelijktijdig habitat gecreëerd wordt voor functionele biodiversiteit. De onderetage kan daarnaast ook integraal als een productiecomponent beschouwd worden, bijvoorbeeld door het aanplanten van korte omloop hout, bessenstruiken, etc.

Usefulness of agroforestry in water erosion control has been already demonstrated in different climatic zones, but less is known about methods how to stop erosion on arable fields of temperate climate using woody vegetation. We recommend selected protection measures within so-called phyto-melioration technique (set of practices aiming to improve soil productivity through cultivation of selected crop species). Steep slopes of arable lands, susceptible to very strong erosion (at inclination over 15°) should be covered with sward, supplemented by introduction of scattered woodlots. On slopes on silty and loess soils, susceptible to strong erosion (at inclination 10-15°) contour farming including buffers strips (strong rooting bushes and sward with herbal layer) needs to be performed. The belts should be introduced, perpendicularly to the slope at the maximum distance 150m and adapted to spatial arrangement of fields. The first buffer strip of approx. 5m width and triple-row should be established at the transition point from hill top to the slope. Other transition points (more exposed, usually in a crescent-shape form) should be afforested with bushes. Slopes susceptible to average erosion (at inclination 6-10° on silty and loess soils and 10-15° on others), contour belts can be arranged with distances up to 200-220m. Orchard type bench terraces with green sward are recommended as well on slight slopes (inclined less than 12°) that are susceptible to erosion. Stabilizing eroded gullies is also important for protection of arable lands, including mix of deep-rooted grasses and woody perennials. Water banks adjacent to arable lands need to be stabilized by at least 10m afforested strips with deep rooted species of grasses, bushes and trees.

Wykorzystanie systemów rolno-leśnych w ochronie gruntów przed erozją zostało już udowodnione w różnych strefach klimatycznych, chociaż powszechny jest brak wiedzy w zakresie metod ograniczenia erozji gruntów ornych w klimacie umiarkowanym przy wykorzystaniu zadrzewień. W tekście zalecamy wybrane metody ochronne w zakresie tak zwanej fitomelioracji (poprawianie produktywności gleb przez zakładanie upraw odpowiednio dobranych gatunków roślin). Strome zbocza gruntów ornych zagrożone erozją bardzo silną (o nachyleniu 15° i większym) należy całkowicie zadarnić i uzupełnić luźnymi zadrzewieniami powierzchniowymi. Na zboczach zagrożonych erozją silną (o nachyleniu 10-15°) na glebach lessowych i pyłowych, należy zakładać poprzeczno-stokowe pasy głęboko korzeniących się krzewów z zadarnieniem z warstwą zielną. Pasy te powinno się wprowadzać w odległości 150m dostosowując do układu pól. Pierwsze zadrzewienie (trzyrzędowy pas krzewów o szerokości ok. 5m) powinno się wykonać w miejscu styku wierzchowiny ze zboczem. Na fragmentach grzbietów na zboczu (tzw. półksiężycach) wprowadzać powierzchniowe zadrzewienia. Zbocza zagrożone erozją średnio-intensywną (o nachyleniu 6-10° na glebach pyłowych i 10-15° na pozostałych), odległości pomiędzy pasami mogą wynosić 200-220m. Starasowane I zadarnione tereny sadów są zalecane na zboczach, narażonych na erozję, których nachylenie wynosi poniżej 12°. Zagospodarowanie wąwozów poprzez odpowiednie zastosowanie pasów głęboko korzeniących się traw oraz krzewów jest również ważnym sposobem ochrony gruntów ornych. Brzegi zbiorników i cieków, sąsiadujące z gruntami ornymi należy obsadzić co najmniej 10-metrowym zadarnionym pasem buforowym z gęstą obsadą krzewów i drzew.

Extensive transhumance of sheep is practiced in Carpathian mountains since centuries. In Polish Carpathians, sheep belonging to many owners graze on remote mountainous pastures in summer from the early May to the end of September. Grazing is managed by chief shepherd with trained helpers. This sustainably managed grazing scheme can be the source of valuable silvopastoral system. The main threat to the grassland is heavy encroachment of bushes after land is abandoned. Grazing helps to stop the encroachment process and restores the land to agricultural use. The chief shepherd knows very well habitats and decides which species should be removed (including for domestic fuel use) and which are needed to be left and/or protected by grazing. Some individual woody plants are left in order to maintain biodiversity, protect against erosion and finally increase grassland productivity. In this way, open woodland-landscape is created offering a set of environmental and cultural values. Trees left provide shade and shelter for animals. Moreover, sheep are selectively browsing young twigs and leaves that supply them essential nutrients or deworm. Livestock is also browsing woodlands during herd transhumance to higher located pastures. Animals browse leaves and twigs of beech, hornbeam, pine, alder, willow, poplar, birch or bird cherry. Despite this fact, browsing usually does not decrease significantly wood production on mountain wood pastures. Studies show grazing at adequate stocking rate supports sward biodiversity and spruce seedlings growth. To summarize, wooded pasture with sheep grazing can be sustainable productive system providing animal products, wood and enhancing diverse and valuable cultural landscape.

Wypas kulturowy praktykowany jest w Karpatach do wieków. W Polsce, wspólny wypas owiec należących do wielu właścicieli, gazdów, prowadzony jest przez bacę oraz pomocników - juhasów. Owce prowadzone są na letnie pastwiska górskie i tam przebywają od początku maja do końca września. Taki sposób zrównoważonego gospodarowania pastwiskami może być podstawą leśnopastwiskowego systemu. Zagrożeniem dla górskich ekosystemów trawiastych jest zarastanie krzewami na skutek zaniechania ich użytkowania. Wypas pozwala zatrzymać ten proces oraz przywrócić grunty rolnictwu. Baca zna gatunki roślin chronionych związanych ze środowiskiem wypasu, (współ)decyduje o usunięciu roślin niepożądanych (w tym w celu pozyskania drewna opałowego) i pozostawieniu gatunków korzystnych. Część drzew i krzewów pozostawia się w celu zwiększenia bioróżnorodności, ochrony gleby przed erozją a w ostateczności poprawy produkcyjności hal. Chronią one zwierzęta przed wiatrem i słońcem. Jednocześnie, owce selektywnie zjadają liście i młode gałązki roślinności drzewiastej, będące źródłem składników mineralnych i substancji odrobaczających. Obserwacje wykazały, że zwierzęta chętnie obskubują gałązki buka, grabu, sosny, jodły, olszy, wierzby, topoli, brzozy i czeremchy zwyczajnej. Ich aktywność pokarmowa nie wpływa jednak znacząco na produkcję drewna na obszarze górskich pastwisk. Badania dowiodły, że wypas owiec przy odpowiedniej obsadzie nie powodował uszkodzeń sadzonek świerka oraz poprawiał bioróżnorodność ekosystemu. Podsumowując, zadrzewione pastwisko z wypasem owiec może być zrównoważonym systemem produkcyjnym dostarczającym produkty zwierzęce

Open agricultural landscape are found to be less efficient due to the productivity risks related mostly to drought, wind erosion and biodiversity loss. Only spatially continuous and properly designed shelterbelts/hedgerows network is capable to effectively mitigate large-scale environmental threats. Hence, Polish scientists developed the basic guidelines on preferred spatial features, species composition and vertical structure of woody patches. Clumps of trees and belts designed to enhance agricultural landscape's biological richness on open agricultural areas should form net-shaped structure with base diameter ca 500 m. They should consist of continuous shrub layer and sparse trees of native species. Shelterbelts or windbreaks are defined as a planting usually made up of one or more rows of trees or shrubs planted in such a manner as to provide shelter from the wind and to protect soil from erosion, resulting in the first case in 5-15% potential crop yield increase in some field experiments on cereals. An effective shelterbelt should reach no more than 15 (5-20) multiples of its final height, projected horizontally from the tree. The open agricultural landscape should be partitioned with subsequent shelterbelts, located perpendicularly to prevailing wind direction. Shelterbelt mutual distances need to be up to 300-400 m, linked together by belts of supplementary hedgerows (at maximum possible distances up to 40 times the height of the hedgerow). Crown density (60-70% opacity counted from wind direction), appropriate shrubs species in the understory layer and location are crucial to have a desirable effect.

Ocenia się, że w otwartym krajobrazie rolniczym zwiększa się ryzyko produkcji rolniczej wskutek nasilenia zagrożeń suszy, erozji wietrznej oraz spadku bioróżnorodności. Jedynie ciągła przestrzennie i właściwie zaprojektowana infrastruktura sieci zadrzewień pasowych jest w stanie w efektywny sposób złagodzić obszarowe zagrożenia środowiskowe. Dlatego też, Polscy naukowcy opracowali zasady kształtowania zadrzewień (cech przestrzennych, doboru gatunków i budowy) w kontekście aktualnych zagrożeń. Zakładanie sieci korytarzy ekologicznych z węzłami o łącznej średnicy około 500m jest niezbędne do zwiększenia bioróżnorodności w krajobrazie. Zadrzewienia tego typu powinny się składać z warstwy krzewów oraz pojedynczych drzew rodzimych gatunków. Pasy zadrzewień mogą znacząco ograniczać ewapotranspirację roślin uprawnych, nawet biorąc pod uwagę wysoką transpiracje samych drzew, są w stanie zwiększyć plon zbóż o 5-15%. Skuteczne oddziaływanie zadrzewienia (wpływ na mikroklimat pola poprzez ograniczanie prędkości wiatru) ma miejsce w odległości do 15 (5-20) wielokrotności jego wysokości. Z tego względu sieć zadrzewień powinna składać się z pasów przeciwdziałających dominującym kierunkom wiatru w odległości 300-400m od siebie, oraz prostopadłych do nich żywopłotów rozmieszczonych do 40 wielokrotności wysokości. Zwarcie boczne koron powinno wahać się w granicach 60-70%. Istotne znaczenie mają skład gatunkowy z udziałem krzewów oraz lokalizacja zadrzewienia (na otwartej przestrzeni lub na szczycie wierzchowiny).

Ecological Focus Areas (EFA) proposed by the Regulation 2017/2393 for the CAP 2014-2020 period include land lying fallow for melliferous plants. Although only melliferous herbs are considered as EFA in Poland, it is worth noting that large number of melliferous trees and bushes can be incorporated to increase pollen availability period and to provide a higher number of Ecosystem Services. For improving pollination under Central Europe conditions, we recommend planting strips of woody crops including melliferous herbs mixed with flowering shrubs and trees with seasonally long and varied blossom period: (1) species blooming in the early spring e.g. hazel, goat willow or basket willow (30 days of blooming). (2) species blooming during the spring, e.g. sycamore, Norway maple (20 days), black locust (14 days), mountain-ash (15 days), mahaleb cherry (20 days), dog rose, cherry plum, native species of Spirea, Siberian peashrub (14 days), native hawthorns (12 days) (3) species blooming in spring/summer, e.g. alder buckthorn (120 days); common snowberry (90 days); limes T. cordata and T. platyphyllos (53 days); The species should be selected to flourish during the time when neighboring crops do not do it (rape, legumes, horticultural crops etc.). Some alien woody species with long blooming period, for example popular Himalayan goji (Lycium barbarum) (even 150 days), due its high invasiveness and toxicity is not recommended. Other invasive woody crops include: Rosa rugosa, steeplebush, red osier and black cherry. Planting melliferous hedgerows 3m wide helps to fulfill greening requirement, improves biodiversity at landscape scale and facilitates pollination of neighboring crops.

Nowy rodzaj obszarów proekologicznych EFA - „grunty ugorowane z roślinami miododajnymi” obejmuje jedynie rośliny zielne, ale warto także zwrócić uwagę na możliwość wykorzystania licznych gatunków drzew i krzewów o długim okresie kwitnienia i dostarczających pożytków w różnych okresach roku: (1) gatunki kwitnące wczesną wiosną, np. leszczyna pospolita, wierzba iwa, wierzba wiciowa (30 dni kwitnienia). (2) gatunki kwitnące wiosną, np. klon jawor, klon zwyczajny (20 dni), robinia akacjowa (14 dni), jarząb pospolity (15 dni), wiśnia wonna (20 dni), róża dzika, śliwa ałycza, krajowe gatunki tawuły, karagana syberyjska (14 dni), krajowe gatunki głogów (12 dni) (3) gatunki kwitnące na przełomie wiosny i lata, np. kruszyna pospolita (120 dni); śnieguliczka (90 dni); lipy drobnolistna i szerokolistna (53 dni). Gatunki te powinny być dobrane tak, aby terminami ich kwitnienia uzupełnić okresy między kwitnieniem różnych miododajnych upraw polowych (np. rzepaku, bobowatych lub upraw ogrodniczych). Niektóre długo kwitnące gatunki, jak na przykład róża pomarszczona, tawuła kutnerowata, dereń rozłogowy czy czeremcha amerykańska są uważane za inwazyjne. Kolcowój pospolity może kwitnąć nawet przez 150 dni, jednak jest to roślina bardzo inwazyjna i trująca. Sadzenie miododajnych żywopłotów o szerokości przynajmniej 3 metrów korzystnie wpływa na zwiększenie bioróżnorodności w skali krajobrazu oraz zapylanie sąsiednich roślin uprawnych a na gruntach o rozdrobnionej strukturze działek może ułatwić spełnienie wymogu zazielenienia.

The corners of centre-pivot irrigation systems are usually underappreciated areas on farms. Located on agricultural soils and close to irrigation, these areas are many times left unproductive. However, the installation of trees on such areas could be considered as a good strategy for farm production diversification, increase biodiversity, reducing evapotranspiration on the surrounding areas, and increasing soil water infiltration capacity, among other advantages associated with silvoarable agroforestry systems. In Portugal, some farms are already taking advantage of these areas to install a diversity of tree species. The chosen species have been: fruit trees, high quality wood trees and fast growing species for wood biomass (particularly Eucalyptus globulus). Due to the characteristics of these areas, tree growth will be expected to range from average to high tree quality classes. Nonetheless, the choice of tree species should take into consideration the possibility of waterlogging and other soil features (such as texture), and the crops cultivated on the centre-pivot irrigation area. The latest is the decisive point for the number of trees to plant by hectare and the choice between deciduous or persistent, once these two determinate light availability for the main crop.

Os cantos dos pivots de rega das explorações agrícolas representam uma área geralmente subaproveitada. Localizada em solo de aptidão agrícola e próxima da água da rega libertada pelo pivot, esta área é muitas vezes deixada improdutiva e sem uso. No entanto, a sua utilização para a instalação de espécies arbóreas é uma opção a ser considerada. Esta instalação permite a diversificação da produção da exploração, o aumento da biodiversidade, a redução da evapotranspiração da área envolvente, o aumento da capacidade de infiltração de água no solo, entre outras vantagens associadas aos sistemas agroflorestais silvoaráveis.
Em Portugal, são já algumas as explorações que aproveitam estas áreas para a instalação de espécies arbóreas diversas. A escolha das espécies tem variado entre as seguintes opções: árvores de fruto, árvore para produção de madeira de qualidade e espécies de crescimento rápido para produção de biomassa lenhosa (em particular Eucalyptus globulus). Pelas características destas áreas, é expectável que o crescimento das árvores corresponda a classes de qualidade médias a elevadas. No entanto, a escolha das espécies deve atender à possibilidade de encharcamento e outras características do solo (ex: de textura), e às culturas instaladas na área do pivot. Este último ponto será determinante para o número de árvores por hectare a plantar e para a escolha de espécies de folha caduca ou persistente, uma vez que estas determinam as condições de luz para a cultura principal.

Herdade das Cebolas (Alentejo) is a farm with 140 hectares, placed in the Mediterranean area of Portugal, with little rainfall (around 400 mm), and a long dry period (4 to 7 months) with frequent temperature peaks above 40 °C. While less winter frost occurs in the uphill areas, the soil is very superficial. In the valley, the deeper soil tends to be waterlogged in winter and spring, which asphyxiates the roots. At this farm, around 400 fruit trees were planted. To reduce the negative impacts of climate, in particular the dry period, we established a fivefold strategy. 1. Diversify species and cultivars that can stand the harsh summer while not being too sensitive to waterlogging. We focus especially on pomegranate cultivars (around 100), despite the fact that they are sensitive to Phytophtora. Other species include e.g. mulberry, fig, quince and jujube. 2. Drip irrigation during the summer. 3. Plant trees on earth mounds, which increases soil depth and decreases waterlogging. 4. Mulch each tree with straw (one small bale per tree per year). Mulching reduces evaporation, improves soil health, reduces the presence of weeds, and adds extra organic material through decomposition. It can include tomato or physalis bushes too. 5. Dig narrow swales close to the tree line. They allow us to catch run-off water and infiltrate more water in the soil. At the same time, we use the dugout soil to make the earth mounds. As part of a low tech approach, inspired by Ethiopian practices, the swale ditches are interrupted every 10 meter which prevents the water from accumulating at one extreme were the swale not perfectly on contours.

A Herdade das Cebolas (Alentejo) é uma exploração agrícola com 140 ha, localizada numa região de clima mediterrânio em Portugal, com precipitação reduzida (40 mm), e com períodos de seca prolongados (4 a 7 meses), onde se verificam picos de temperatura acima dos 40 °C. A ocorrência de geada é baixa nas zonas mais altas, onde o solo é muito delgado. Nas zonas de vale o solo é mais profundo e tende a alagar no Inverno e Primavera, causando a asfixia das raízes. Nesta exploração foram plantadas 400 árvores de fruto. Por forma a reduzir os impactos do clima, em particular no período seco, foram estabelecidas 5 açoes distintas. 1. Seleção das espécies e cultivares tendo em atenção a sua resistência à secura e ao encharcamento. Foram utilizados vários cultivares de romaneira (cerca de 100), apesar destas serem sensíveis à Phytophtora. Outas espécies incluídas: amoreira, figueira, marmeleiro, Ziziphus jujuba etc. 2. Instalação de um sistema de rega gota-a-gota para o período de Verão. 3. Plantação de árvores em montes de terra, o que aumenta a profundidade do solo e reduz o encharcamento. 4. Cobertura da base de cada árvore com palha (mulch): um fardo pequeno por árvore por ano. O mulch reduz a evaporação, melhora a qualidade do solo, reduz a frequência de infestação de herbáceas e adiciona matéria orgânica ao solo. Na linha são ainda incluídas tomate e physalis. 5. Escavação de swales estreitos. Estes possibilitam a captação da água de escorrimento superficial e aumentam a infiltração e o solo retirado é utilizado nos montes de terra. Como parte duma estratégia menos mecanizada, inspirada em práticas Etíopes, os swales são interrompidos a cada 10 m, permitindo a acumulação de água num dos extremos no caso do swale não se localizar exatamente na curva de nível.

Herdade das Cebolas, a mid-size farm located at Campinho (Alentejo, Portugal) is characterized by a grazed holm oak savannah growing in dry conditions (around 400 mm of rainfall a year). Farming with so little water requires a combination of strategies: (1) relying on trees with deep roots rather than on annuals with deep roots, (2) making sure that the soil is always covered to keep it cooler and reduce evaporation, e.g. through preserving grass height or mulching, (3) increasing soil depth and organic content to improve its capacity to store rainwater, (4) working on landscape structure to catch, store and infiltrate water from the very top of the slopes and reduce run-off. One measure of the fourth type that was implemented consists in digging 5 m wide ponds of 1 m depth. The system started with mapping contour lines every half a meter with a drone. We then located the ponds on water concentration spots, visible from the contours. This was the basis to dig ponds in the landscape, to contribute to the reduction of waterlogging in the lowest parts of the farm. It takes one hour with a backhoe to dig each pond. The material removed serves to build a small dam. The larger stones are used to construct cairns that serve as shelters and habitat for little owls, snakes etc. Soils are especially shallow uphill, which means that part of the bottom of the pond is dug in stone. Hence, the vertical infiltration of water in the soil is very slow, which leaves enough time to some of our 10 species of amphibians to take advantage of autumn and spring rains to reproduce.

A Herdade das Cebolas, exploração de tamanho médio localizada em Campinho (Alentejo, Portugal), é caracterizada por um montado de azinho pastoreado por ovelhas, numa região de clima seco (400 mm de precipitação por ano). O cultivo com tão pouca água requer uma combinação de estratégias: 1) recorrer a árvores com raízes profundas em vez de anuais 2) garantir a cobertura do solo para reduzir a evapotranspiração (ex: preservando as herbáceas ou utilizando coberturas de mulch) 3) aumentar a profundidade do solo e o conteúdo em matéria orgânica melhorando a capacidade de retenção da água 4) promover o armazenamento e infiltração de água do topo da encosta e reduzir o escorrimento superficial. Uma das medidas implementadas consistiu em escavar charcas de 5 m de largura por 1 m de profundidade. Iniciou-se com o mapeamento das curvas-de-nível a cada 0,5 m com um drone. As charcas foram construídas o mais elevado possível para contribuírem também para a redução do alagamento/encharcamento nas zonas mais baixas. Cada charca foi feita em 1 hora com uma retroescavadora. O material removido serviu para construir uma pequena barragem. As pedras maiores foram utilizadas para construir abrigos para pequenos animais. Os solos são particularmente superficiais nas zonas altas, o que significa que parte do fundo das charcas é construído sobre rocha. Consequentemente, a infiltração vertical da água no solo é muito lenta permitindo quer algumas das 10 espécies de anfíbios existentes tirarem partido das chuvas de Outono e Primavera para se reproduzirem.

The process of aerobic composting woodchips (and other materials) yields a large quantity of thermal energy, which is normally lost to the surrounding environment as heat. Some of this heat can be captured to produce a simple, low cost, off-grid propagation bench for raising frost sensitive horticultural tansplants in sites without electricity. The heat is generated from the microbial action of composting woodchip which can be sourced from management of woody elements (trees and shrubs) on the farm. The propagation bench is essentially a wooden box with one side which can be opened and is easily accessible for loading and removing woodchip. If the woodchip is added to the box in winter then the composting process is already under way in spring when the heat is needed. Propagation trays can either be layed straight on top of the chip or onto slatted shelves that move down as the chip pile composts and decreases in size. Covering the top of the bench with a raised insulating material (e.g. bubble wrap) helps to trap the heat and maintain a more even temperature for the plants.Once the woodchip stops generating enough heat for propogation purposes the partially decomposed woodchip can be used for other purposes (e.g. composting, soil amendment or mulching pathways).

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The application of uncomposted (ramial) woodchip at an appropriate phase in a crop rotation has been shown to increase soil organic matter, water holding capacity and nutrient levels. A group of stakeholders are investigating this in the UK through a series of on farm trials comparing the addition of uncomposted vs composted woodchip from on-farm woody resources as a soil improver. The trials use material produced from the coppicing of farm hedges, trees and short rotation coppice. The self supply of fertility provides an incentive for the inclusion and active management of on-farm woody resources.Practical recommendations from the trials include:

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In many silvoarable systems the area between the trees and under the tree canopy within the tree row is an underutilised space. Planting crops there can provide additional short term income while trees establish, or longer term if shade tolerant species are used, increasing production and diversifying the marketable products from the tree row. Crops that could be established underneath the trees include culinary herbs, flowers, perennial fruit and vegetables such as globe artichokes or rhubarb, mushrooms and berry bushes. Some species and varieties will be better suited to the conditions found in tree rows and it may be worth trialling varieties or species first to identify those best suited, before scaling up. Ideally, the new crop will complement current alley and tree production, but for unusual crops some marketing and/or processing may be needed. As well as increasing overall productivity, crops may benefit useful biodiversity such as bees by providing new habitats and resources. However, this increase in complexity can also present challenges, and the following practical points need consideration: There will be establishment costs and ongoing additional labour requirements. To reduce the labour impact ideally choose crops that can be harvested and managed in farm quieter periods.
For some tree systems or management practices (e.g. short rotation coppice, or high density fruit trees), the competition for resources such as sunlight, water and nutrients may be too strong to allow any understorey crops. As the trees grow, the understorey microclimate conditions will change, with shade and competition increasing for open site plants. This may mean that the understorey crops will also need to change over time or eventually be out-competed.

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Silvopastoral practices offer domestic animals multiple benefits including access to shade and shelter. The Levels of nutrition in browse can be comparable to other feed crops grown in the same environment and trees can be a good source of minerals. As a defence mechanism plants produce chemicals known as Plant Secondary Metabolites (PSMs) including bitter tasting tannins. At high concentrations, tannins can reduce feed intake. However, both tannins and copper inhibit the development of gastrointestinal parasites resulting in both fewer eggs being laid and a reduction in the number hatching. All tree leaves contain tannins, hazel and beech are good sources of copper. Tannins also increase the availability of higher quality, rumen-bypass protein in the diet resulting in increased resilience to parasite infection. A second PSM, salicylic acid, is a recognised pain suppressant with anti-inflammatory and mild antibiotic properties, trees such as willow and poplar are good sources of salicylic acid. Gastrointestinal parasites cannot develop resistance to tannins, protein or copper so these methods of parasite control will continue to offer effective aids to animal health. They offer a valid alternative to chemical anthelmintics and avoid the associated increasing problems of resistance.It is not always easy for humans to recognise when animals are in pain. Enabling animals to self-medicate not only alleviates pain but can alert stockpersons to potential health problems. Offering domestic animals access to browse can improve animal welfare by enabling them to manage their own health to a greater degree. These systems require sufficient access to trees and the trees need time for regrowth.

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Finca Equilibrium is located in a semi-arid region with sandy soils and average annual precipitation of 709 mm (average1960-1990). In recent years, during extreme drought events with 300 mm of annual precipitation, there have been occasions of heavy rainfall lasting only a few hours (for instance, 30 mm on 1 or 3 hours). On this property two temporary water lines merge together and, during intense or prolonged precipitation events, fill up and runoff through the valley or the flattened riverbed which results from the old and costly mechanized soil mobilizations. Nowadays, the main investment is water management to cool down the microclimate and increase vegetation productivity. In 2018 an experimental alley cropping agroforestry system was started, with diverse tree species, shrubs and drip irrigation. To enlarge the flooded area and the amount of water infiltration a ditch and pond system was installed, inspired by the "Key-line system". A rotary excavator was used with a 4500 € budget and 70 labour hours. The top of the ditches and ponds is on the contour lines which enables to slow, spread, catch and infiltrate an average of 20000 m3 of water along a 1 km distance. Water depth varies between 0.5 and 1.5 m. Allowing for the slow rise of the water table the irrigation costs from the well hole are expected to lessen and the opening of the shallow well, closed years ago, may be justified.

A Finca Equilibrium está localizada numa zona semiárida de solo arenoso com uma precipitação média anual de 709 mm (média de 1960-1990). Nos últimos anos, durante a seca extrema, com 300 mm de precipitação anuais, verificaram-se chuvas concentradas em poucas horas (por ex. 30mm em 1 ou 3 horas). No terreno há uma junção de duas linhas de água temporárias. Estas, quando há chuvas intensas ou prolongadas, enchem e escoam a torrente pelo vale ou leito aplanado que resultou das antigas e caras mobilizações de solo mecanizadas. Hoje, o maior investimento é na gestão da água para arrefecer o micro-clima e aumentar a produtividade da vegetação. Foi iniciado em 2018 um sistema agroflorestal experimental de cultura nas entrelinhas, com espécies variadas de árvores, arbustos e com rega gota-a-gota. Para aumentar a área inundada e a quantidade de água infiltrada foi instalado um sistema de valas e lagos, inspirado no "sistema key-line". Foi usada uma "escavadora rotativa", com um orçamento de 4500 € em 70 horas de trabalho. O topo das valas e dos lagos acompanha curvas-de-nível, conseguindo-se assim abrandar, espalhar, conter e infiltrar ao longo de 1 km uma média de 20000m3 anuais de água. A profundidade da água varia entre 0,5 e 1,5 m. Esperando a lenta subida do lençol freático, espera-se a longo prazo reduzir os custos com irrigação a partir de furo e justificar a reabertura de um poço superficial fechado há vários anos.

Among the coniferous forests, pine forests are good producers of ectomycorrhizal fungi, such as Lactarius deliciosus, Lactarius semisanguineus, Lactarius sanguineus, Boletus edulis, Boletus pinophilus, Hydnum repandum, Cantharellus cibarius, Craterellus tubaeformis, Craterellus lutescens, or Russula cyanoxantha. In hardwood forests, such as chestnut, oak, oak, cork or holm oak we can also collect mushrooms with commercial importance of species such as Boletus edulis, Boletus aereus, Hydnum repandum, Amanita caesarea, Cantharellus cibarius or Craterellus cornucopioides. In Galicia, productions in good years between 50 and more than 100 kg of fresh weight per ha are cited, being very variable among years depending on the weather. Good practices to increase production are the mycorrhization of adult trees, pruning, comercial and uncormercial thinings to improve the vigor of the trees, and the clearing of the undergrowth (ideally it is conversion into grasses). In the face of sustainable use it is important to avoid abusive practices in the collection: use of rakes, collection of species without interest, collection of very young or extramature species, use transport bags that prevent spores from falling, such as plastic bags, etc. It is also important, when the forest harvest is carried out in the final cut, to avoid clear cuttings and leave some mature trees to maintain mycorrhization.

Entre los bosques de coníferas, los pinares son buenos productores de setas de hongos ectomicorrícicos, comoLactarius deliciosus, Lactarius semisanguineus, Lactarius sanguineus, Boletus edulis, Boletus pinophilus, Hydnum repandum, Cantharellus cibarius, Craterellus tubaeformis, Craterellus lutescens, o Russula cyanoxantha. En bosques de frondosas, como castaños, robles, rebollos, alcornoques o encinas también podemos recolectar setas con importancia comercial de especies como Boletus edulis, Boletus aereus, Hydnum repandum, Amanita caesarea, Cantharellus cibarius o Craterellus cornucopioides. En Galicia se citan producciones en años buenos entre 50 y más de 100 kg de peso fresco por ha, siendo muy variables entre años en función de la meteorología. Buenas prácticas para incrementar las producciones son La micorrización de árboles adultos, las podas, clareos y claras para mejorar el vigor del arbolado, y el desbroce del sotobosque (lo ideal es que esté encespedado). De cara a un aprovechamiento sostenible es importante evitar prácticas abusivas en la recolección: uso de rastrillos, recolección de especies sin interés, recolección de especies muy jóvenes o extramaduros, usar recipientes que impidan la caída de las esporas como las bolsas de plástico, etc. También es importante, cuando se realiza el aprovechamiento forestal en la corta final, evitar las cortas a hecho o a matarrasa, procurando dejar algunos árboles maduros para mantener la micorrización.

Chestnut plantations are one of the most profitable trees in Europe as shown the existence of a DOP label that Galicia chestnut fruit has. Nowadays, a well managed chestnut fruit plantation can deliver 10000 euros per year. The development of ink-resistant chestnut hybrids have allowed an increase of the plantations in Galicia in the last decade. So, there are two different types of chestnut stands co-existing nowadays in Galicia, those in high altitude areas (i.e. Ancares/Caurel) and those associated to low altitude areas (new plantations). Traditional Chestnut stands are composed of over 500 years-old trees from 100 different varieties that ensures chestnut production and therefore resilience to unpredictable weather events (i.e. frosts..). Chestnut trees need regular pruning and grafting every 30 years to ensure fruit productivity. Moreover, these traditional chestnut production and are placed in high steeply areas with difficult access are currently not profitable enough to harvest the fruit. In this case, it may be interesting to introduce local and rustic animal breeds such as the "porco celta" that are adapted to mountain conditions and that deliver high value meat products that are exported to countries such as Japan. On the other hand, the new tree plantations introduced thanks to the Rural Development Measures in lowlands areas are unproductive until they are 15 years-old, and widely planted (10 x 10 m) which allow both the implementation of both silvoarable through the introduction of adequate crop varieties or silvopasture practices through the introduction of animals, generally sheep. The combination of sheep and chestnut production have shown a reduction in the pesticides use to prevent chestnut fruit damage in Portugal.

Las plantaciones de castaño son una de las más rentables en Europa como muestra la existencia de una etiqueta de Denominación Geográfica Protegida en sus frutos. Hoy en día, un soto bien gestionado puede producir 10000 euros al año. El desarrollo de hibridos resistentes al castaño ha permitido el aumento de las plantaciones en Galicia en la última década. En la actualidad, coexisten en Galicia dos tipos diferentes de masas de castaño, unas asociadas a zonas de elevada altitude (i.e. Ancares/Caurel) y otras a zonas de altitud más reducida (plantaciones nuevas). Las masas tradicionales de castaño están compuestas por árboles con edades superiores a los 500 años de 100 variedades diferentes que aseguran la producción de castaña y por lo tanto la resiliencia frente a eventos climáticos no predecibles (i.e., heladas..). Los castaños necesitan podas regulares e injertos cada 30 años para asegurar la producción de fruto. La producción tradicional de castaña localizada en zonas con elevada pendiente y de difícil acceso no son lo suficientemente rentables como para recoger el fruto. Puede ser interesante introducir razas animales locales y rústicas como el "porco celta" que están adaptadas a las condiciones de montaña y que producen carne de calidad que se exportan a países como el Japón. Por otra parte, las nuevas plantaciones arboladas introducidas gracias a las medidas e desarrollo rural en las zonas más bajas son improductivas hasta que alcanzan los 15 años y se planta con amplios marcos de plantación, lo que permitiría el empleo de prácticas silvoarables o silvopastorales, generalmente con oveja. La combinación de ovino y la producción de castaña ha demostrado una disminución en el empleo de pesticidas como forma de prevención de daño al fruto en Portugal.

Cherry trees together with walnut is one of the most promising and valued trees whose timber may provide over 3000 euros per tree to farmers after growing several decades (30 years in Galicia). However, initial investment associated to the plantation itself and the silviculture operations such as clearing, pruning and thinning together with the lack of production of the land during the life of the stand prevents farmers to plant them. One of the alternatives to overcome these concerns from farmers is to implement silvopastoral practices. Silvopasture not only reduces the tree maintenance costs associated to clearing but allows farmer to deliver animal products from the cherry plantation that otherwise will produce nothing from the understory. An experiment was carried out in Galicia to evaluate the feasibility of implementing silvopasture in cherry plantations, showing that continuous stocking rates of around 8 sheep ha-1 increases carbon sequestration in the soil, soil fertility, pasture biodiversity, tree growth and reduces tree production costs associated with clearing when compared with exclusive cherry plantations managed with herbicides application to control the understory. Moreover, the grass growing season was extended as the drought effect on grass production was less effective under the trees than in open sites. Tree damaged caused by sheep scratch was negligible and no root damage was shown. On the contrary, due to the introduction of sheep in the cherry plantation the farmer was able to maintain an annual output from the meat that compensates the lack of economic return of the cherry plantation until trees are harvested.

El cerezo junto al nogal es una de las especies más prometedoras y valoradas para la producción de madera noble que puede alcanzar los 3000 euros por árbol al agricultor tras 30 años de crecimiento en Galicia. Las inversiones iniciales asociadas a la plantación junto a las operaciones selvícolas tales como desbroces, podas y claras junto a la ausencia de producción a partir del sotobosque limita que los agricultores realicen estas plantaciones. Esto puede solventarse con el establecimiento de prácticas agroforestales. Estas prácticas no solamente reducen el coste de mantenimiento del árbol asociado al desbroce sino que permiten al proporcionar productos desde el momento de la plantación. En Galicia, se llevó a cabo un experimento para evaluar la posibilidad de implementar el Silvopastoreo en plantaciones de cerezo, mostrando que una carga ganadera continua de 8 ovejas ha-1 aumenta el secuestro de carbono en el suelo, la fertilidad edáfica, la biodiversidad de las pasto, el crecimiento del arbolado a la vez que reduce los costes de producción del árbol asociados al desbroce cuando se comparaba con plantaciones no pastoreadas de cerezo gestionadas con herbicida como sistema de control del sotobosque. Es más, la estación de crecimiento del pasto se amplió ya que el efecto de la sequía sobre la producción de pasto fue menos efectiva bajo el arbolado que en zonas abiertas. El daño causado a los árboles por el rascado fue insignificante y no se encontraron daños en las raíces tampoco. Por el contrario, debido a la introducción de la oveja en la plantación de cerezos, el agricultor fue capaz de mantener una producción anual a partir de la carne que compensa la falta de retorno económico en las plantaciones de cerezo hasta que se produce la corta final.

Walnut is together with cherry one of the most promising and valued that may provide over 3000 euros per tree to farmers after growing several decades (30 years in Galicia). However, a strong initial investment linked to the plantation together with high tree maintenance costs linked to silvicultural operations such as pruning and thinning prevents farmers to plant them, as usually no other product are initially obtained from the planted land. On the other hand, tree-less arable lands are producing crops but also decapitalizing soil fertility that can be solved through the introduction of widely walnut spaced tree plantations. Walnut trees are especially suitable to be grown with winter crops including cereals because they sprout late in the spring allowing plenty sunlight to the crop even with dense plantations. High pruning should be carried out that contribute to reduce tree/crop competition Walnut variety selection should ensure the best form of the logs. Earlier crop varieties should be adequately selected to be grown under the trees. The Spanish AFCLIMA project aimed at evaluating the development of different varieties of rye, wheat, maize, triticale and barley under walnut with different tree ages in different climatic regions of Spain. After two years of study it was found that there is enough genetic variability that allows adequate selection of crop varieties to be grown under shade conditions. Tree distance has also shown important effects on crop growth. So, maize production is reduced until 6 meters of distance are reached far away from the tree.

El nogal es junto al cerezo una de las especies forestales más prometedoras y de valor que pueden proporcionar más de 3000 eruos por árbol a agricultores tras varias décadas de crecimiento (30 años en Galicia). Sin embargo, la grandes inversiones iniciales asociadas a la plantación junto con los costes de mantenimiento asociados a operaciones selvícolas como la poda y la clara limitan quelos agricultores los plantes, ya que no se obtienen otros productos de la zona plantada. Por otra parte, las zonas arables desarboladas producen cultivos pero también decapitalizan la fertilidad del suelo lo que puede ser resuelto a través de la introducción de plantaciones con espaciaminento amplio de nogal. Los nogales son especialmente adecuados para el crecimiento de cultivo de invierno incluyendo los cereales ya que estos brotan tarde en primavera lo que permite al cultivo recibir mucha luz incluso en plantaciones densas. También se deben realizar poda alta que permite disminuir la competencia entre el árbol y el cultivo. La selección de la variedad de nogal debe asegurar la mejor forma de los troncos. La selección de variedades tempranas de cultivos debe realizarse para su establecimiento bajo el arbolado. El proyecto español AFCLIMA tiene por objeto evaluar el desarrollo de diferentes variedades de centeno, trigo, maíz, triticale y cebada bajo nogal de diferentes edades establecidos en diferentes zonas de España. Después de dos años de estudio, se encontró que hay suficiente variabilidad genética que permite una selección adecuada de cultivos para crecer en condiciones de sombra. La distancia también mostró tener un efecto importante sobre el desarrollo del cultivo. Así, la producción de maíz se reduce hasta los 6 metros de distancia con el árbol.

Walnuts (Juglans spp.) silvoarable systems have strong environmental value, for the mitigation of climate changes and for the reduction of soil erosion. The Rural Development Plans can finance this new type of cultural system. The walnut trees are very suitable for the production of saw logs, but above all of veneer logs, a category with very high market value. The most suitable species are the common walnut, Juglans regia L. and the interspecific hybrids. Several traditional varieties/populations are available for common walnut, widespread in different areas of Europe, and obtained by the selection carried out over the past centuries by the rural populations for the double production of fruits and timber. In Italy, we mention the Sorrento (southern Italy- It), the Feltrina (centre It), the Bleggiana (northern It), and in France, the Lozeronne (Alps). For the technical and economic success of the walnut agroforestry plantation for timber production, the appropriate choice of plant material is fundamental, selecting late bud break genotypes and with marked apical dominance. Late bud breaking is the main adaptive strategy to avoid damage from late frosts in spring, to which common walnut is highly sensitive. Furthermore, late budbreak reduces the shading of adult trees on associated crops. Differences of about 1 month are possible between the early genotypes, from southern latitudes, and the late ones, from northern latitudes, along with the two French hybrids MJ209xRA and NG23xRA. The late genotypes are also those with greater apical dominance, facilitating the pruning and the formation of cylindrical trunks without branches, best suitable for veneering.

I sistemi silvoarabili di noce da legno (Juglans spp.) hanno una forte valenza ambientale, per la mitigazione dei cambiamenti climatici e per la riduzione dell’erosione del suolo. I Piani di Sviluppo Rurale possono finanziare questa nuova tipologia di sistema colturale. Il noce è indicato per la produzione di tronchi da sega, ma soprattutto di tronchi da trancia, categoria produttiva che spunta i maggiori valori di vendita. Le specie più adatte sono il noce comune, Juglans regia L. e gli ibridi interspecifici. Per il noce comune sono disponibili alcune varietà/popolazioni tradizionali, diffuse in diverse zone d’Europa, e frutto della selezione operata nei secoli dalle popolazioni rurali per la duplice produzione di frutti e legname. In Italia, segnaliamo la Sorrento (sud Italia, It), la Feltrina (centro It), la Bleggiana (nord It). In Francia, la Lozeronne (Alpi). Per il successo tecnico ed economico dell’impianto agroforestale del noce, è fondamentale l’opportuna scelta del materiale d’impianto, selezionando genotipi a fogliazione tardiva ed a spiccata dominanza apicale. La fogliazione tardiva è fondamentale per evitare i danni da gelate tardive in primavera, a cui il noce è fortemente sensibile. Inoltre la fogliazione tardiva riduce l’ombreggiamento degli alberi adulti sulle colture consociate. Differenze di circa 1 mese sono possibili tra i genotipi più precoci, dalle latitudini più meridionali, e quelli più tardivi, dalle latitudini più settentrionali, e i due ibridi francesi MJ209xRA e NG23xRA. I genotipi più tardivi sono anche quelli a maggiore dominanza apicale, facilitando la potatura e la formazione di tronchi da lavoro cilindrici e privi di rami, maggiormente adatti alla tranciatura.

The idea of the Multi-functional Model is born from researches on mountain farming carried out in the Aniene Valley, Simbruini chain, Italy. Main target was to study new land use paradigms for both rainfed or watered farming systems in marginal areas. Such models are planned to preserve local biodiversity by increasing the ecological connectedness of the rural areas. This can enforce the local ecological network.
In order to connect the ecological and the social components of any socioecological system, the recovery of sustainable rural practices is a primary functional target. Our socioecological studies have clearly addressed a positive willingness by local communities to reanalyse and recover their own biodiversity resources. Indeed, the proper perception of their own socioecological system empowers the community to re-join the environmental and the cultural values of the territory.
General rules to adopt good practices towards the sustainable development of rural marginal farming networks are listed here.
1) Organization of a rural network of farmers.
2) Analysis of the socioecological system to define the local biodiversity resources (both forestry and agriculture).
3) Agreements for a shared adoption of the micro-ecological networks, by reconstituting a system of hedgerows with shrubs and trees, which divides the land in a number of medium-small arable fields.
4) Tuning of rotation practices with valuable species, varieties and cultivar typical of that territory.
5) Set up of a local marketing strategy basing on the concept of cultural 0 km.

L’ideazione del Modello Polifunzionale (MPf) nasce in attività progettuali svolte nel contesto agrimontano della Val d’Aniene, Appennino Centrale. Obiettivo principale è lo studio di schemi d’uso del suolo sia in situazioni di arido-agricoltura che irrigue. Tali schemi devono primariamente soddisfare l’esigenza di conservazione della biodiversità dell’area in cui si opera, aumentando la funzionalità connettiva del territorio e migliorando la rete ecologica complessiva dell’area.
In tale contesto il recupero di pratiche agrarie, frutticole ed orticole si pone quale elemento funzionale di integrazione tra le dimensioni naturalistica e socio economica del comprensorio. Indagini socio-ecologiche svolte sull'agricoltura montana rivelano la disponibilità delle popolazioni locali verso la riscoperta e valorizzazione delle risorse di biodiversità locale. La percezione del territorio da parte della popolazione accomuna l’elevato valore ambientale del territorio con la ricchezza dei beni culturali, architettonici ed agroalimentari.
Elenchiamo delle regole generali da seguire per lo sviluppo sostenibile dal comprensorio rurale all'azienda:
1. organizzazione della rete rurale di aziende
2. definizione del contesto socioecologico con attenzione alla biodiversità locale forestale e agraria e all'agricoltura biologica
3. accordo di rete rurale per il ripristino della microrete ecologica inter ed intra-poderale, sotto forma di filari arboreo arbustivi che delimitano appezzamenti agrari di dimensioni medio-piccole
4. studio di rotazioni agrarie che recuperano specie, varietà e cultivar autoctone e con alto valore aggiunto
5. impostazione di una rete di marketing locale basata sul concetto di km 0 culturale.

Poplar silvoarable systems, with poplar trees intercropped with herbaceous crops, have high ecological values for the mitigation of Climate Change and for the phytoremediation of agricultural soils. Rural Development Plan can finance this new innovative agroforestry system. Poplar hybrids produce peeled timber for plywood, with a rotation of around 10 years, provided they are planted on fertile soils with optimal water supply: from rainfall, with at least 700 mm per year; from the water table, to an optimal depth of 100-150 cm; and from irrigation, to cover drought periods. Drained alluvial plains, with drainage ditches at 35 m, are the best sites for the establishment of silvoarable poplar systems. Tree planting on one side of ditch edge allows to use in a productive way the strip of land unless unproductive, without altering ditch stability and allowing free access to farm machineries for all cultural operations, both for the herbaceous component (soil tillage, fertilization, weeding, sparying for pests/diseases control, and crop harvesting) and for the trees (pruning) as well. For poplar establishment, it is preferable to use 2 year old rods, adopting the new poplar clones with great environmental sustainability (MSA clones), requiring much less pesticide treatments than traditional clones. Poplar rods are planted 10 m away on the row. Thus, with a planting spacing of 10 x 35 m, in the first 5 years there are any negligible intercrops yield reduction due to tree shading. Over the next 5 years, on average, a shade loss to by 15-25% may occur, depending on crop type and tree row orientation. The north-south orientation of tree rows is preferable, to minimize the shading on intercrops.

I sistemi silvoarabili di consociazione del pioppo con colture erbacee hanno un'alta valenza ecologica per la mitigazione dei Cambiamenti Climatici e per il fitorimedio dei terreni agricoli. I Piani di Sviluppo Rurale possono finanziare questa tipologia di impianto. Gli ibridi di pioppo producono legname da sfogliato per compensati, con un turno di circa 10 anni, purchè piantati su terreni fertili con approvvigionamento idrico ottimale: da precipitazioni annuali di almeno 700 mm; da falda , a 100-150 cm di profondità; o da irrigazione, per coprire periodi siccitosi estemporanei. I terreni di pianura alluvionale, intervallati dalle scoline di drenaggio a 35 m, sono ideali per la realizzazione di un sistema silvoarabile di pioppo. La piantagione sul bordo della scolina permette di utilizzare in modo produttivo la striscia di terreno limitrofa alla scolina, senza alterarne la stabilità e consente il libero accesso ai mezzi meccanici per tutte le operazioni culturalu, sia per la componente erbacea (lavorazioni del suolo, fertilizzazione, controllo delle infestanti, raccolta) e per gli alberi (potatura). Per l'impianto di pioppo, è preferibile utilizzare astoni di due anni, usando i nuovi cloni con maggiore sostenibilità ambientale (cloni MSA) e che richiedono un minor uso di pesticidi rispetto ai cloni tradizionali. Gli astoni devono essere piantati a 10 m sulla fila in modo tale che con uno spazio di 10 x 35 m, nei primi 5 anni la riduzione di produzione delle colture intercalari, dovuta all'ombreggiamento, sarà trascurabile. Nei 5 anni successivi, in media, la riduzione potrà essere del 15-25% a seconda del tipo di coltura e dell'orientamento delle file di alberi. L'orientamento nord-sud, riduce le perdite per ombreggiamento.

Agriculture and land use changes play a key role in atmospheric CO2 emission and fixation, especially by affecting the soil C storage. Agroforestry systems can contribute to climate change mitigation by increasing tree cover on agricultural land. However, the amount of C stored as soil organic matter depends on several factors, such as soil characteristics and management practices. Olive groves are one of the most common land use practice in Mediterranean area. Therefore, it is important to investigate soil C stock in olive orchards, and to assess which agronomic practices could improve soil C sequestration. For this reason, a study has been conducted in Umbria Region, central Italy, analysing different olive groves, including conventional and organic management, and a typical silvopastoral agroforestry system, where olive cultivation is combined with sheep grazing. The high values of soil C stock indicate that olive could play an important role in soil C sequestration, comparable to that of natural forest ecosystems. A slightly lower soil C stock was measured in the silvopastoral farm in comparison to the other farms, while high soil C stock resulted to be associated with the use of pomace as fertilizer. Finally, the evaluation of the soil C stock in the deeper soil layers turned out to be very important for the analysis, as they can store a considerable amount of C.

Pratiche agricole e cambiamenti di uso del suolo giocano un ruolo fondamentale nei riguardi della emissione di CO2 nell’atmosfera e il suo stoccaggio nel suolo. I sistemi agroforestali possono contribuire alla mitigazione dei cambiamenti climatici grazie alla presenza di alberi. L’accumulo di C nel suolo come sostanza organica dipende da diversi fattori, quali le caratteristiche del suolo e le forme di gestione agronomica. Gli uliveti sono una forma di uso del suolo tra le più comuni in ambiente Mediterraneo. Quindi, è importante stimare lo stock di C negli uliveti e valutare quali pratiche agronomiche possono migliorarne la quantità. Per questa ragione uno studio è stato condotto nella regione Umbria, prendendo in considerazione uliveti a diversa gestione: convenzionale, biologica e silvopastorale in cui è praticato il pascolo ovino. I risultati hanno messo in evidenza che gli uliveti svolgono un ruolo importante nell’assorbimento del C, che registrano valori comparabili a quelli di ecosistemi forestali naturali. Nel sistema silvopastorale lo stock di C è leggermente inferiore a quello degli uliveti gestiti in maniera convenzionale o biologica, mentre i valori maggiori sono stati rilevati in uliveti in cui è stata distribuita la sansa come fertilizzante. Infine, lo studio ha messo in evidenza che è molto importante misurare il contenuto di C negli strati più profondi di suolo, in quanto il maggior contenuto è accumulato in profondità.

Walnut cultivation is rare in Flanders, opening up a lot of perspectives for regionally produced walnuts. Nuts and high quality timber are highly valued with a high market demand. Walnut timber prices are over 500 euro per m³ and can produce up to 20 kg of dry nuts per tree per year in Flanders. Nut consumption is increasing in Belgium with families spending 19 and 30 € per year on nuts in 2016 and 2012, respectively. Nuts import has tripled in the same period. Walnut tree fits perfectly in agroforestry, not only because the relatively low competition for light with other crops due to the open crown, the late leafing and early leaf fall. When combined with winter cereals, there is only a short overlap period between the growing period of the crop and the leafing period of the tree, reducing light competition. Walnut leaves are generally rich in nutrients and decompose quickly, speeding up the nutrient cycling. Allelopathic effects of walnut on crops are less important in Juglans regia than with J. nigra, where significant effects on crops like potatoes and cabages are reported. The design and walnut variety selection is highly depending on the tree goal: nuts or timber. To maximize the tree productivity, attention is needed for the soil preparation, pruning and varietiy choices. Reduced problems with diseases like leaf blotch and walnut blight and an optimization of pollination followed by increased yields, can be the result of carefully choosing the most suited varieties of the system. Agroforestry systems with walnut can be linked to silvoarable (especially with young trees) or to silvopasture (especially with mature trees). Cherry trees have similar agroforestry relevant characteristics. Moreover, leaves are considered very palatable for animals.

Professionele teelt van walnoten is zeldzaam in Vlaanderen en zo goed als alle noten worden geïmporteerd. Dit opent perspectieven voor lokale productie. De voedzame noten en het kwalitatief hout zijn hoog aangeschreven en de marktvraag is navenant. Notenhoutprijzen schommelen rond 500 euro per m³. Productieve notelaars in Vlaanderen kunnen zo’n 20 kg droge noten per boom per jaar produceren. In 2016 spendeerde een gemiddeld Vlaams gezin 30 € per jaar aan noten, in 2012 was dit nog maar 19 €. In dezelfde periode verdrievoudigde de import van walnoten. De robuuste walnotenboom past goed in een silvicultureel agroforestry systeem. De open kroon, late bladvorming en vroege bladval beperkt competitie voor licht. In combinatie met wintergraan in Vlaamse context bv. maar een korte overlap tussen de groeiperiode van het gewas en bladstadium van de boom. Hun bladeren zijn bovendien nutriëntenrijk en snel afbreekbaar. Allelopathische effecten van notenbomen op de gewassen zijn minder belangrijk bij Juglans regia dan bij J. nigra, waar wel effecten op teelten als aardappelen en kolen optreden. Het agroforestry design en de variëteitenkeuze hangt af van het doel: noten of hout. Een maximale productie vereist een gepaste voorbereiding van bodem, snoei en variëteitenkeuze. De variëteit bepaalt de gevoeligheid voor bladvlekkenziekte en bacteriebrand en beïnvloedt de bestuiving. Walnoten kunnen zowel gecombineerd worden met plantaardige productie als dierlijke productie. Kersenbomen hebben gelijkaardige agroforestry relevante eigenschappen als walnoten. Dit maakt hen minstens even interessant om in dergelijke systemen in te passen en richtlijnen wat betreft de praktische implementatie zijn gelijkaardig als bij walnoten.

European sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa) are rich in carbohydrates (comparable to wheat and rice) and sugar while low content in fat therefore are highly appreciated by consumers. Well managed chestnut trees in Galicia have shown to produce around 80 kg chestnuts per tree per year, resulting in an income of over 6.000 € per ha year. Most of the produced nuts are directly consumed fresh, roasted, fried or boiled. ‘Marron Glacé’ is an example of a highly appreciated product based on sweet chestnuts with prices over 2 euro per fruit. There are also several value-added products. For example, some varieties are used for making gluten-free chestnut flour or bee hives are used to produce chestnut honey. Besides the nuts, the chestnut timber is also highly valued for its colour, natural durability and easiness for working. Countries of southern Europe (especially mountainous regions) are traditionally the largest producers of chestnut as shown the recently created Galician PDO that identified up to 98 varieties in their region of which 10 have edible high value. Chestnut industries are expanding over less rugged terrain in Europe but knowledge and experience is lacking. Chestnut agroforestry need to consider that the broad crown creates a lot of shade and the litter is not easily decomposed, rendering the trees more suitable for silvopastoral systems such as those linked to sheep and pigs in Portugal and Spain and less for silvoarable systems when the trees become adult. Diseases and pests are common in European chestnut plantations (ink disease, chestnut blight, chestnut weevils and the Oriental chestnut gall wasp) causing a lot of damage to chestnut trees, decimating chestnut yields. An appropriate choice of varieties for planting and grafting is crucial.

De kastanjes van de Europese tamme kastanje zijn aantrekkelijk voor de consument: rijk aan koolhydraten en suiker, maar ook vetarm. Productieve kastanjes in Galicië produceren jaarlijks zo’n 80 kg kastanjes per boom, wat 6000 - 10.000 € per hectare per jaar betekent. In een gematigd klimaat produceren ze 25 – 30 kg kastanjes per boom per jaar. Kastanjes worden vers, geroosterd, gebakken of gekookt geconsumeerd. De ‘Marron Glacé’ is een voorbeeld van een hoog aangeschreven eindproduct met prijzen tot 2 € per kastanje. Andere producten met toegevoegde waarde zijn bv. glutenvrije kastanjebloem of kastanjehoning. Ook het hout van de tamme kastanje is waardevol vanwege zijn mooie kleur, natuurlijke duurzaamheid en goede bewerkbaarheid. Zuid-Europese bergachtige regio’s zijn traditioneel belangrijke producenten van tamme kastanje producten. Zo identificeerde de ‘Galician Protected Designation Origin’ 98 variëteiten in hun regio, waarvan 10 eetbare met hoge voedingswaarde. De laatste decennia breidt de kastanjeteelt zich uit naar minder ruwe terreinen in Europa. Bij tamme kastanje in agroforestry systemen moet rekening gehouden worden met de brede kroon (schaduwwerking) en het relatief traag afbreekbaar strooisel. Combinaties met buitenloop van dieren lijken hierdoor het meest geschikt. In Portugal en Spanje bieden ze op die manier vaak beschutting en een aanvulling op het dieet van schapen en varkens. Ziektes en pestsoorten vormen een reële bedreiging in Europese kastanje aanplanten (inktziekte, kastanjekanker, tammekastanjegalwesp, kastanjesnuitkever) en richten vaak veel schade aan waarbij opbrengsten gedecimeerd kunnen worden. Een keuze van geschikte variëteiten bij het planten en enten is hierbij cruciaal.

Sheep are often used in management of rural landscapes but they can even be set to work in commercial forest management. Managed forests need thinning 10-20 years after stand establishment. These early forest operations usually do not give an immediate financial return but do improve the future growing conditions of the stand. Early thinning operations are often neglected because of the costs and the forest owner has to wait many years before receiving a return on the investment. Sheep grazing can save costs on thinning in spruce, pine and mixed forest stands. Sheep are natural-born forest managers as they like eating willow, rowan, aspen and alder. These tree species are normally removed during thinning. Due to their selective feeding habits, sheep will leave the commercially more valuable forestry trees such as pine and spruce largely untouched. The appropriate stocking rate differs for different types of pasture and varies from 0.2-4 ewes per hectare. At too high stocking rates, sheep may also browse pine and birch but at an appropriate stocking rate, and when there is enough other deciduous browse and grass available, they will leave pine and spruce trees in peace. This is however site dependent, and when practicing forest grazing you have to keep an eye on it to ensure that there is still sufficient natural regeneration. Other advantages are that the sheep have accessto shade on hot summer days and in most cases no supplementary feeding is needed. Even in this year’s extremely dry summer in Finland, Otto Makkonen from Savonranta in eastern Finland, had no need for supplementary feeding as there was plentiful natural forage available. This
demonstrates the usefulness of forest grazing as a climate
resilient agroforestry practice.

Lampaita käytetään usein maisemalaiduntamisessa mutta ne voivat toimia myös metsätalouden palveluksessa. Hoitometsää harvennetaan 10-20 vuoden kuluttua taimikon istuttamisesta. Näistä harvennushakkuista ei yleensä saa voittoa, mutta toimet parantavat metsän kasvua. Varhaisia harvennushakkuita ei aina tehdä koska ne tulevat kalliiksi omistajalle ja sijoitus maksaa itsensä takaisin vasta pitkän ajan kuluttua. Laiduntavat lampaat voivat säästää metsänhoitokuluissa kuusi-, mänty- ja sekametsissä. Lampaat ovat luonnostaan metsänhoitajia, koska ne syövät mielellään pajua, pihlajaa, haapaa ja leppää. Nämä puulajit ovat niitä, joita harvennushakkuissa yleensä kaadetaan. Koska lampaat valikoivat ruokansa tarkasti, ne jättävät yleensä kaupallisesti arvokkaammat puulajit kuten männyn ja kuusen rauhaan. Oikea eläintiheys vaihtelee laiduntyyppien mukaan 0,2–4 uuheen hehtaarilla. Jos eläintiheys on liian suuri, lampaat saattavat alkaa maistella mäntyä ja koivua, mutta sopivalla tiheydellä ja kun saatavilla on tarpeeksi muita lehtipuita ja ruohoa, ne jättävät männyn ja kuusen rauhaan. Tämä on kuitenkin laidunkohtaista, ja metsälaidunnuksessa pitääkin olla tarkkana, etteivät lampaat syö kaikkia taimia vaan että metsä saa uudistua myös luontaisesti. Metsälaiduntamisen etuja ovat myös, että lampaat pääsevät varjoon kuumina päivinä ja useimmiten ne eivät tarvitse muuta ruokaa. Jopa erityisen kuumana ja kuivana kesänä 2018 Otto Makkonen Savonrannasta totesi etteivät lampaat tarvinneet lisäruokintaa. Tämä osoittaa metsälaiduntamisen hyödyn – agrometsätalous parantaa metsien resilienssiä ilmastolle.

Traditional rural biotopes are among the most biodiverse habitats in northern Europe. They encompass wood pastures, wooded meadows, old slash-and-burn cultivation areas, herb-rich meadows, riparian and flooded meadows, fen meadows and moorlands. For planning management of traditional rural biotopes, it is important to take into account their biological and cultural history values as there is no single management method that fits all of them.
Grazing at intermediate pressure has in general a positive impact on biodiversity. Different combinations of grazers have a different impact on biodiversity, because the animals eat different species. For the same reason, also grazing and mowing have different impacts on biodiversity.
In addition to their natural and cultural value, there are opportunities to generate additional farm income from traditional rural biotopes such as ecotourism, therapy and well-being services (Greencare), wild berry and mushroom cultivation, honey production, bioenergy production and direct sales of pasture meat.
If a wooded area hasn’t been grazed for a long time, clearance of dense vegetation is needed before grazers can be introduced, and the harvested shrubs and trees can be sold as timber, firewood or wood chips. Farmers can apply for compensation for managing traditional rural landscapes, including the initial clearance and fencing, for up to 450-600 €/year for 5 years.
The Grazing Bank online service www.laidunpankki.fi offers help in finding animals and grazing areas.

Maalaismaisemaan kuuluvat perinnebiotoopit ovat lajistoltaan Pohjois-Euroopan rikkaimpia. Niihin kuuluvat metsälaitumet, lehdesniityt, vanhat kaskiviljelmät, tuoreet niityt ja kedot, rantaniityt, tulvaniityt, suoniityt ja nummet. Perinnebiotooppien hoidon suunnitellussa on tärkeää huomioida kohteen biologiset ja kulttuurihistorialliset arvot, koska perinnebiotooppityypit eroavat toistaan, ei niiden hoidossakaan voida soveltaa yhtä ja samaa menetelmää.
Kun laiduntaminen on keskitasolla, sillä on yleensä positiivinen vaikutus luonnon monimuotoisuuteen. Myös laidunelämien valinnalla on vaikutuksensa monimuotoisuuteen, koska eri eläimet syövät eri kasvilajeja. Samasta syystä myös laiduntamisella ja niittämisellä on erilaiset vaikutukset monimuotoisuuteen
Biologisten ja kulttuuriarvojensa lisäksi, perinnebiotoopit tarjoavat lisäansiomahdollisuuksia, kuten ekoturismi, hyvinvointipalvelut, luonnonmarjojen ja sienien kasvatus, hunajantuotanto, bioenergiatuotanto tai laidunnetun lihan suoramyynti.
Jos metsämaata ei ole pitkään aikaan laidunnettu, voi olla tarpeen raivata tiheikköjä ennen laiduneläinten tuomista. Raivattu puuaines voidaan myydä esimerkiksi polttopuuksi tai hakkeeksi. Aktiiviviljelijät voivat hakea korvausta perinnebiotooppien hoitoon, mukaan lukien raivaaminen ja aitaaminen. Korvaus on 450-600 euroa vuodessa viiden vuoden ajalla.
Laidunpankki on työkalu, jonka avulla voi hankkia lisälaidunta eläimille tai löytää eläimiä maisemanhoitajiksi: www.laidunpankki.fi.

Growing a forest is a long-term investment and a forest owner has to wait many years before the forest generates some income from wood harvesting. Active mushroom cultivation on cut logs in forests can provide an additional income for forest owners. Also, mushroom cultivation on living trees can be applied as an ecological forest management tool. The income generated from harvesting small-diameter trees during thinning is quite low and amounts just a couple of euros per tree, while the value of chaga mushrooms on a single birch can be worth 100 euros.In addition, mushroom cultivation increases ecoefficiency. Producing food in addition to wood production contributes to a more efficient land use. There are different techniques for mushroom cultivation in forests. For example shiitake, oyster and lingzhi (reishi) mushrooms are grown on logs. They grow on birch but also alder, oak or aspen logs are suitable. Mushrooms can be grown on small-diameter logs (about 10 cm in diameter) cut to 1 m length and piled in stacks. Holes are drilled in the logs to insert the dowels with mushroom mycelia. After that the holes are sealed with gardening wax to prevent contamination by other fungi and mold as well as to prevent moisture loss. It is important that logs are kept moist otherwise the mycelia might degenerate or die. A log can produce mushrooms for about 3-4 years. Shiitake and oyster are for consumption, while lingzhi has medicinal purposes. Chaga (pakuri), also a medicinal mushroom, is grown on living birch trees instead. After inoculation, the first chaga mushrooms are harvested after 5-6 years and can be harvested for another 2 rotations. After about 15 years the tree dies but can still be harvested as fire or fibre wood.

Metsä on pitkän aikavälin sijoitus ja metsänomistaja joutuu odottamaan vuosia ennen kuin hänen sijoituksena tuottaa hakkuutuloja. Aktiivinen arvosienten kasvatus joko pölkyissä tai elävissä puissa voi auttaa metsänomistajia saamaan lisätuloja metsästään. Lisäksi elävissä puissa kasvatettavat sienet toimivat myös ekologisena metsänhoitokeinona. Ensiharvennuksen myötä saatava tulo on pientä, muutaman euron luokkaa puuta kohden, kun taas pakurilla ympätyn koivun tuotto voi olla jopa 100 euroa. Lisäksi sientenkasvatus lisää ekotehokkuutta, ruoan tuotanto puuntuotannon ohessa tehostaa maankäyttöä.
Arvosienten kasvattamiseen metsässä on monia eri tapoja. Pölkyissä kasvatettavia lajeja ovat esimerkiksi siitake, osterivinokas ja lakkakääpä. Ne kasvavat koivupölkyissä, mutta myös leppä-, tammi- tai haapapölkyt käyvät. Sieniä voidaan kasvattaa halkaisijaltaan pienissä pölkyissä (n. 10 cm), jotka leikataan metrin pätkiksi ja pinotaan. Pölkkyihin porataan reikiä, joihin rihmasto ympätään. Sen jälkeen reiät suojataan puutarhavahalla, jotta muut sienet, homeet tai kuivuus eivät pääse vahingoittamaan kasvustoa. On tärkeää pitää pölkyt kosteina, jotta rihmastot eivät rappeudu tai kuole. Pölkky voi tuottaa satoa 3-4 vuotta. Siitake ja osterivinokas ovat ruokasieniä, lakkakäävällä on puolestaan terveysvaikutuksia.
Pakuria, jolla on myös terveysvaikutuksia, kasvatetaan elävissä koivuissa. Ensimmäinen sato voidaan korjata 5-6 vuoden kuluttua ymppäämisestä ja puusta voi saada vielä kaksi lisäsatoa. Lopuksi puu kaadetaan ja voidaan myydä joko klapeiksi tai kuiduksi.

Truffles production in Poland has been lost due to social and environmental changes during the communist period. In recent years, truffles have gained attention in the country due to several research projects. Experiments with Burgundy truffle Tuber aestivum Vittad. have been established in different fallowed locations in East and Central Poland. Quercus robur, Corylus avellana and Fagus silvatica seedlings were inoculated with T. aestivum and planted with spacings 4.5 x 3 m or 5 x 5 m. Establishment includes loosening the soil - shallow ploughing, disking and harrowing, if necessary, and controlling weeds. Fencing the area (at least 2.5 m high) and applying polypropylene fabric cover around seedlings is recommended. In open areas, in order to protect the place against wind and spore dispersal, one should plant hedgerows including plants cooperating with fungi non-competitive with truffles. It is advised to work with soil in shallow layers (5-10 cm) between tree alleys and control weeds, irrigating 20 mm every 10-15 days and also applying fertilizers depending on the needs of soil and leaves (particularly for K, Mg and S). Where would be a truffle orchard best established? The area should have a minimum rainfall sum of 600 mm and average air temperature of 8 degrees C, respectively. Fertile soils with a share of silt fraction over 30%, calciferous, rich in P, well-drained, with pH between 7.2 and 8.4, C/N ratio around 10, and K/Mg ratio above 2 provide the best soil conditions for truffle cultivation. South-facing side of the hill inclined more than 15% is very useful. It is still unknown what are the optimum conditions to truffle mycorrhizas so the issue needs exploring it further to reduce investment risk.

Produkcja trufli w Polsce została zarzucona w okresie komunizmu na skutek społecznych i środowiskowych zmian. W ostatnich latach, ponownie zyskała na znaczeniu dzięki kilku projektom badawczym, w ramach których prowadzono doświadczenia z uprawą trufli letniej Tuber aestivum Vittad. w kilku lokalizacjach we wschodniej i środkowej Polsce. Sadzonki Quercus robur, Corylus avellana i Fagus silvatica zaszczepiono grzybnią i posadzono w rozstawach 4,5x3m lub 5x5m. Przygotowanie uprawy obejmuje spulchnienie gleby – płytką orkę oraz talerzowanie, bronowanie i odchwaszczanie w razie potrzeby. Zaleca się ogrodzenie plantacji (przynajmniej 2,5 m wysokości) oraz wyłożenie agro-włókniny wokół sadzonek. W terenie odsłoniętym zaleca się ochronę sadzonek przed wiatrem i zarodnikami innych grzybów, poprzez zakładanie żywopłotów z udziałem roślin, tworzących mikoryzy z grzybami niekonkurencyjnymi dla truﬂi. Gleba w międzyrzędziach powinna zostać spulchniona na głębokość 5-10cm, odchwaszczana, zaleca się stosować nawadnianie w dawce 20 mm co 10-15 dni, nawożenie w zależności od potrzeb gleby i roślin (w szczególności K, Mg i S). Gdzie najlepiej zakładać ogrody truflowe? Na obszarach z roczną sumą opadu, nie niższą niż 600 mm oraz średnią temperaturą powietrza powyżej 8 stopni C. Najlepsze do upraw są odłogi na żyznych wapiennych glebach, z udziałem iłu > 30%, bogate w fosfor, umiarkowanie wilgotne, o odczynie w zakresie 7,2 – 8,4, stosunku C/N powyżej 10, stosunku K/Mg powyżej 2. Najbardziej przydatne są południowe zbocza, o nachyleniu pow. 15%. Nie mamy wciąż pełnej wiedzy na temat optymalnych warunków kolonizacji grzybni, dlatego należy śledzić postępy w tym zakresie, aby ograniczyć ryzyko inwestycji.

Polish hunting term "remiza śródpolna" means small mid-field islet being refugium habitat, covered usually by trees and shrubs, maintained and often designed for small wild game e.g. hares, pheasants, partridges. It is crucial also for improving water balance and protect local ponds against pollution, hence being a part of sustainable agroforestry landscape. In Poland they are often under control of public Hunting Cooperatives and State Forest National Holding. The refugia should be located in sunny places sheltered from the wind and if possible around small natural pond/stream in order to protect it or on unused/unsuitable for agriculture lands (field margins). The optimum size is within the range 0.25-1 ha, most favorable of a square shape. Outer zone should include tall herbaceous vegetation and low widely spreading thorny bushes (blackberry, raspberry, rose), planted with spacing 0.3 x 1 m to protect inner zone and increase drought resistance. More internal part of the zone should be covered by tall bushes and trees e.g. hawthorn, Viburnum, mountain-ash, apple, spruce, juniper and pine (taller trees need to be planted on the east- and north-side of the place to reduce shade). Clumps of coniferous trees must be planted with spacing 2 x 2 m and pollarded regularly. The central zone of the dry islet should comprise at least ¼ of the area, sown to grass or seasonal crop feeding wild game. In case of pond or stream, the distance of woody vegetation from the water zone must be at least of twice of its height. Once a refugium is established, planting hedges around is recommended. Protecting tree trunks, thinning, pruning and manual weeding are standard practices, being carried out depending on the need.

Remiza śródpolna to położony na gruntach rolnych zazwyczaj niewielki powierzchniowo obszar pokryty drzewami, krzewami i inną roślinnością, wspierająca życie i rozwój zwierząt dziko żyjących (np. zajęcy, bażantów, kuropatw). Poprawia również bilans wodny oraz jakość wód. Stąd, remizy powinny być istotnym elementem krajobrazu rolnego. W Polsce są zazwyczaj kojarzone ze śródpolnymi drzewami i zwykle znajdują się pod kontrolą i opieką Polskiego Związku Łowieckiego oraz pracowników PGL „Lasy Państwowe”.
Remizy powinny być zlokalizowane w zacisznych oraz nasłonecznionych miejscach, jest wskazane aby były zakładane wokół oczka wodnego lub cieku lub na gruntach nieużytkowanych. Remiza powinna mieć kształt zbliżony do kwadratu i zajmować powierzchnię 0,25 - 1 ha. Zewnętrzna strefa powinna zawierać warstwę wysokich traw i ziół oraz niskich, rozgałęziających się krzewów (jeżyna, malina, róża), sadzonych w więźbie 0,3 – 1 m co zapewni osłonę i zapobiegnie suszy. W strefie wewnętrznej sadzimy wyższe krzewy i drzewa (np. głóg, kalinę, jarzębinę, jabłoń, świerka, jałowca i sosnę). Aby ograniczyć zacienienie, wysokie drzewa należy sadzić po północnej i wschodniej stronie remizy. Kępy drzew i krzewów iglastych sadzi się w więźbie 2 x 2 m i regularnie ogławia. Centralną część (przynajmniej ¼) remizy nie obejmującej oczka wodnego należy obsiać trawą lub założyć poletko łowieckie. W przypadku obiektu wodnego, drzewa i krzewy powinny być utrzymane w odległości co najmniej dwukrotności ich wysokości od brzegu wód. Po przyjęciu się krzewów i drzew, zaleca się otoczenie remizy żywopłotem. W zależności od potrzeb, zabezpiecza się pnie drzew siatką oraz wykonuje się zabiegi przerzedzania, cięć pędów lub ręcznego odchwaszczania.

Recent studies carried out on a mature and uneven aged cork oak stand, 53% crown cover, characterized by Podzols with 1.5% of organic matter, pH 5.7, with shrubs composition dominated by Cistus salvifolius, medium average precipitation 550mm for the 2003-2012 period, compared the effect on cork annual growth and on cork thickness, of two understory management alternatives (UMA): i) understory maintenance along the complete 9 years cork growth period: ii) shrubs removal with a forestry mulcher and residues incorporation in the top soil, followed by yellow lupine seeding (3 years between applications).
Cork thickness from the samples collected in 2003 and 2012 showed a clear decrease for both UMA, associated with a total annual precipitation decrease between the 1994-2003 and 2003-2012 periods. In one of the plots managed with lupine application, an increase of less than 1 mm on the mean annual cork growth (boiled cork) was observed. On the second plot no difference was found.
Results show that, for the trial conditions, lupine seeding did not have a relevant positive effect on the cork growth and final cork value. The maintenance of this specific spontaneous vegetation in the understory throughout the cork rotation period may reduce operations costs, and promote ecological functions such as tree regeneration or soil protection.

Estudos recentes realizados num povoamento adulto e irregular de sobreiro, com 53% de percentagem de coberto, caracterizado por solos do tipo Podzol com 1.5% de matéria orgânica, pH 5.7, dominado no subcoberto por Cistus salvifolius, com uma precipitação média anual de 550mm no período 2003-2012, compararam o efeito no crescimento anual e no calibre final da cortiça das opções de gestão (OG): i) manutenção da vegetação espontânea do subcoberto, durante o período de 9 anos de crescimento da cortiça. ii) remoção da vegetação espontânea do subcoberto com um destroçador e incorporação no horizonte superficial, segioda de sementeira de tremocilha (3 anos entre aplicações).
Comparando as amostras de cortiça recolhidas em 2003 e 2012, observou-se uma redução no calibre da cortiça em ambas as OG, diretamente relacionada com a diminuição da precipitação anual total entre 1994-2003 e 2003-2012. Numa das parcelas com tremocilha observou-se um aumento do crescimento anual médio de cortiça inferior a 1 mm (cortiça cozida). Na segunda parcela não se observaram diferenças entre as duas OG.
Os resultados demonstram que, nestas condições, a sementeira de tremocilha não tem um efeito positivo relevante no crescimento da cortiça e no seu calibre final. A manutenção da vegetação espontânea no subcoberto, num período de 9 anos entre descortiçamentos, pode não só reduzir custos, como promover funções ecológicas como regeneração do arvoredo e proteção do solo.

Silvoarable practices or alley cropping are one of the most promising agroforestry practices in Europe and USA were they represents less than 0.5% of the potential arable land. Silvoarable practices integrate crop production with trees or shrubs in the same land management unit. Trees could be homogenously distributed in the plots, or surrounding the plots constituting hedges or hedgerows. When trees are going to be established in the arable lands, it is important to have enough spacing among trees to allow crop mechanization. It is also important to maintain arable practices from the beginning of the tree plantation in order to allow trees to go deeper in soil and anchoring better the trees, which, on the other hand are also benefited by the excess of nutrient that are uptaken by the deeper tree roots than the arable crops tree roots. Moreover, tree lines should be North-South oriented in order to reduce the shade of the trees on the crops when they are East-West oriented, therefore limiting crop production. When trees or shrubs are grown surrounding the plot of the crops the plot environment is improved causing better crop production, mainly when strong winds cause soil desiccation that limits crop production. Especially important is to select adequate crop species that perform better under shade, as most of the crop species have been selected to be developed in open sites.

Las prácticas silvoarables o el cultivo en callejones son uno de las prácticas agroforestales más prometedoras en Europa y Estados Unidos donde representan menos del 0,5% del área arable potencial. Las prácticas silvoarables integran la producción de cultivos con árboles o arbustos en la misma unidad de gestión. Cuando los árboles se va a establecer en los terrenos arables, es importante dejar suficiente espacio entre los árboles para permitir la mecanización. También es importante mantener las prácticas arables desde el principio de la plantación con el objeto de favorecer que los árboles desarrollen sus raíces en profundidad en el suelo permitiendo un mejor anclaje a los árboles, que por otra parte, se benefician de la extracción del exceso de nutrientes que absorben de capas más profundas que los cultivos. Es más la orientación de las líneas de los árboles debe ser Norte-Sur ya que esto permite que no se de sombra al cultivo tal y como sucedería con una orientación Este-Oeste, lo que limitaría la producción del cultivo. Cuando los árboles o arbustos crecen en los bordes de la parcelas de los cultivos, el ambiente se mejora aumentando la producción del cultivo, sobre todo si hay vientos que provocan la desecación limitando la producción del cultivo. Especialmente relevante es la selección adecuada de variedades de cultivo que se desarrollen mejor bajo la sombra, ya que la mayoría de las variedades de las especies de cultivo han sido seleccionadas en condiciones de cielo abierto.

The agroforestry design should be based in an early strategy design in order to maximize the production from a spatial and temporally perspective of both woody perennials and grass components. When woody perennials are going to be included in grasslands areas they would be better suited if they provide some benefits to the system such as (i) the introduction of legume woody perennials will increase understory production, (ii) the form and distribution of the woody perennial allowing a better water and light soil availability (iii) palatability and quality of the woody perennials is adequate. Woody perennials with high leaf /fruit palatability and quality can reduce the needs concentrates when shortage periods appear. The selected woody perennials should consider the potential use of this component itself, for example, if trees are planted for timber production, some tree protection is needed but if shrubs are sown, protection less important. The interaction of the woody perennial/animals should also be taken into account. Trees usually generate shade that increases animal welfare when unpredictable heats appear, therefore improving animal production. But, also trees increases soil fertility improving so far grass production close to the trees, sometimes associated to shortage periods and therefore providing extra feed for animals. When shrublands/forestlands are the land where silvopasture is going to be established, an adequate evaluation of the main understory component should be carried out as the understory species (either shrubs/herbaceous vegetation growing below trees or shrubs) have different palatability for different animals and even animal breeds.

El diseño agroforestal debe basarse en estrategias tempranas con el objeto de maximizar la producción desde un punto de vista espacial y temporal del componente leñoso y pratense. Cuando el componente leñoso se va a incluir en áreas de pastos, estos son más adecuados si proporcionan beneficios al sistema como por ejemplo (i) si éste es una leguminosa aumentará la producción del sotobosque (ii) si la forma y distribución de las ramas del componente leñoso que permite que una mayor cantidad de agua y luz alcance el suelo (iii) si la calidad forrajera del árbol es adecuada. Los cultivos leñosos con una elevada palatabilidad y calidad de sus hojas/frutos pueden reducir las necesidades de concentrado cuando aparecen períodos de falta de pasto. El componente leñoso seleccionado debería considerar el uso potencial de este componente en si mismo, y por ejemplo, si los árboles son plantados con el objeto de producir madera se deben proteger de los posibles daños de los animales pero si lo que se siembra son arbustos, su protección es generalmente poco importante. La interacción de los componentes debe considerarse también. Los árboles normalmente generan sombra que mejoran el bienestar animal. Pero los árboles también incrementan la fertilidad del suelo mejorando la producción de pasto próxima a los árboles, que a veces se asocia a períodos de falta de pasto y por lo tanto proporciona un forraje extra a los animales. Cuando las áreas arbustivas y forestales son las seleccionadas para implementar las prácticas silvopastorales, se precisa realizar una evaluación cuidadosa del principal componente del sotobosque (tanto arbustiva/herbácea bajo arbolado, como arbustos) ya que éstos tienen una palatabilidad diferenciada para diferentes tipos de animales o razas

Traditional olive orchards account for a large share of the area under olives in the EU, particularly in marginal areas. Traditional olive growing can survive only by improving olive farmer income and recognizing its multifunctional role. Italy is the second olive oil producer of the European Union and Umbria can be considered one of the most interesting region because of the high quality production of the extra virgin olive oil and the close connection with traditional knowledge and local environment. The regional olive oil chain, involves about 30,000 farms growing olive trees covering about 27,000 ha and including 270 oil mills. The olive oil production phase comprises the extraction of the oil and additional by-products (water, pomace and husk). The by-products management is very important: the olive oil mill wastes have a great impact on soil and water environments because of the high phyto-toxicity (phenol, lipid and organic acids). In the other hand, such wastes contain potential valuable. The production of olive pâté has been empirically tested in October-November 2017. The experimental protocol has been set up adopting the following steps: check of the integrity and quality of the olives; check of the integrity and quality of the row olive pomace extracted during the processing; transport of the row material in suitable containers (stainless steel) to the processing laboratory; processing with the addition of other ingredients and sterilization or pasteurization; packaging of the final product (olive pâté). The olive pâté production is estimated to be about 6% of the weight of the processed olives (about 50% constituted by water).

La coltivazione dell’olivo rappresenta un’elevata percentuale degli uliveti nei paesi mediterranei dell’UE, in particolare nelle aree più marginali, dove può mantenersi solo se combinata con altre forme di reddito per l’agricoltore nell’ottica di un’agricoltura multifunzionale. L’Italia è il secondo paese produttore di olio nell’Unione Europea e la regione Umbria e la regioni più interessanti grazie all’elevata qualità dell’olio prodotto e alla forte connessione con le conoscenze tradizionali, il paesaggio e l’ambiente. La filiera regionale dell’olio coinvolge circa 30.000 aziende olivicole su circa 27.000 ha e 270 frantoi localizzati in il territorio regionale. La produzione dell’oliodà luogo a diversi sottoprodotti (acque di vegetazione, sansa, nocciolino) che devono essere opportunamente smaltiti dal frantoio in quanto residui ad elevato impatto ambientale per l’elevato contenuto di fenoli, lipidi e acidi grassi. D’altro canto, per queste loro caratteristiche, i residui possono rappresentare una risorsa da valorizzare in filiere innovative. Il CNR-IBAF ha empiricamente sperimentato un metodo di produzione di paté a partire dalla sansa. Il protocollo sperimentale adottato ha previsto le seguenti fasi: controllo della qualità ed integrità delle olive; controllo della qualità della materia prima grezza estratta durante la frangitura delle olive; trasporto della materia prima in contenitori in acciaio; lavorazione della materia prima con eventuale aggiunta di altri ingredienti (salvia, rosmarino, ecc.), sterilizzazione e pastorizzazione; confezionamento del prodotto finale. Nel nostro esperimento, la resa in paté è stata stimata in circa il 6% del peso delle olive lavorate, di cui il 50% è rappresentato da acqua.

In modern agroforestry systems, with intercropping of herbaceous crops and hybrid walnut (NG23) for timber production, the overall system profitability is strongly affected by a modulated balance between tree densities and the duration in time of the production of the intercrops, which tends to decrease with increasing tree age and size due to tree shading. Thus, it is of fundamental importance to correlate the intercrop yield and tree age and growth, using simple parameters, such as the Tree Basal Area (G = (3.14 /4000) x D2 x d; with: D = tree diameter at 1.3 m from the ground; d= trees number ha-1) (Nissen et al., 2002). Research was conducted in Italy, in experimental plantations of hybrid walnut, associated with wheat, clover and natural meadow, identifying the following equations between G and CRY(crop yield, %), i.e. the relative production of intercrop compared to the same crop under non-shaded condition. For wheat, CRY= -6,21G+100; for clover, CRY= -0.04G+100; for natural meadow, CRY= -3.9G+100 (Perali et al 2009; Paris et al 2013). These equations can be used for the optimization of the agroforestry model, depending on the planting density and tree growth rate. For example, with a density of 50 tree ha-1, the CRY of wheat remains well over 80% up to 23 years from the tree planting, which is up to more than two thirds of the tree harvesting cycle. For the density of 83 trees ha-1, the wheat CRY will start to decrease below the 80% threshold at the 17th year of planting.

Nei moderni sistemi di consociazione, tra colture erbacee e noce ibrido (NG23) da legname pregiato, la redditività è fortemente influenzata da un modulato equilibrio tra densità degli alberi e durata nel tempo della produzione della coltura consociata, che tende a diminuire all’aumentare dell’età e dimensioni degli alberi. E’ quindi di fondamentale importanza correlare la produzione delle colture erbacee e l'età degli alberi, mediante semplici parametri, come l’Area Basimetrica degli alberi (G = (3,14/4000) x D2 x d; D=diametro medio degli alberi ad 1,3 m dal suolo; d = numero alberi ha-1) (Nissen et al. 2002). Ricerche condotte in Italia, in piantagioni sperimentali di noce ibrido consociato con grano, trifoglio e prato hanno identificato equazione tra G e PR%, cioè la produzione relativa della coltura consociata rispetto alla stessa non ombreggiata: per grano tenero, PR%=-6,21G+100; per trifoglio, PR%=-0,04G+100; per prato naturale, PR%=-3,9G+100 (Perali et al 2009; Paris et al 2013). Queste equazioni possono essere usate per l’ottimizzazione del modello colturale, in funzione della densità di piantagione e dei ritmi d’accrescimento. Ad esempio, con una densità di 50 piante ha-1, il PR% del grano consociato è ben superiore all’80% sino a 23 anni dall’impianto del noce, cioè fino a più di due terzi del ciclo colturale della piantagione. Per la densità di 83 piante ha-1, il PR% del grano inizia a diminuire oltre la soglia dell’80% al 17° anno d’impianto.

Farming systems should be adapted to climate change such as the increase frequency of extreme whether events such as drought. In the south region of Portugal, carob (Ceratonia siliqua) orchards are sometimes used in agroforestry systems since they are a native, well adapted tree, resistant to the local drought, and their fruit is a very interesting food and feed source both for human and animal consumption.
In Herdade dos Lagos HDL (Alentejo, Portugal) 103 ha are managed as a carob orchard silvopastoral area. They are kept as a dryland crop and the understorey biomass is controlled by 1000 sheep grazing, which also graze the farm’s vineyards (organic production). The sheep grazing activity also contribute for the control of the carob tree side shoots growth. On low production years, when the harvest is unprofitable, carob is left on the ground for animal consumption and soil fertilization, due to its high protein content and therefore organic nitrogen fertilizer potential.
The carob production is high for a low rainfall area. Fore example, in 2017 carob production was around 700 kg ha-1 (annual precipitation 281 mm). The carob and grape harvests are carried out at the same time (from late August to late September), facilitating the management of the temporary labour by the farm. Due to the farm’s social responsibility additional workforce is always locally sourced.
Harvested carob fruits are then sent to a local mill to be shredded, and is then 75% exported to the USA, mostly for animal fodder. Some of the innovative uses for carob meal are in children’s snacks, as a nutritious alternative to animal protein, health supplements, cosmetics, or gluten free foods. We conclude that carob fruit is a good alternative for southern dry areas of Europe.

Os sistemas agrícolas devem estar adaptados às alterações climáticas, tais como o aumento da frequência de eventos extremos como períodos de seca prolongados. Na região sul de Portugal, alguns alfarrobais (Ceratonia siliqua) são geridos como sistemas agroflorestais, visto que a árvore é uma espécie bem adaptada, resistente à seca, e o seu fruto é uma fonte muito interessante de alimento, tanto para consumo humano como animal.
Na Herdade dos Lagos HDL (Alentejo, Portugal) 103 ha de alfarrobal são geridos como sistema silvopastoril, em regime de sequeiro, e a biomassa do subcoberto é controlada pelo pastoreio de 1000 ovelhas que também pastam na vinha da exploração (produção biológica). A atividade de pastoreio também contribui para o controlo dos ladrões da alfarrobeira. Em anos de baixa produção, quando a colheita se torna não rentável, e dado o elevado conteúdo proteico e o seu potencial como fertilizante azotado, a alfarroba é deixada para consumo animal e adubo.
A produção de alfarroba é elevada considerando que é uma zona de precipitação tão baixa. Por exemplo, em 2017 a produção de alfarroba foi cerca de 700 kg ha-1 (com uma precipitação média anual de 281 mm). A colheita da alfarroba é feita juntamente com a vindima (de fins de Agosto a fins de Setembro), facilitando a gestão de mão-de-obra temporária.
A alfarroba colhida é enviada para uma fábrica local para ser moída, e é em seguida 75% exportada para os EUA, sobretudo para forragem. Alguns dos usos inovadores da farinha de alfarroba são em alimentação infantil, como uma alternativa nutritiva à proteína animal, suplementos, cosmética, ou alimentação sem glúten. Conclui-se que a alfarroba é uma boa alternativa para as áreas secas do sul da Europa.

Agroforestry is a sustainable land use system that integrates a woody perennial (forest or fruit trees or shrubs) withagricultural production. There are identified five main agroforestry practices: silvopasture, silvoarable, riparian buffer strips, homegardens and forest farming. Silvopasture represents the 85% of the 19.5 million hectares of agroforestry practices in Europe and it is defined as the integration of livestock production (lower story) and woody perennials. Silvopasture practices are mostly located in the Southern countries of Europe and only used in the 10% of European Permanent Grasslands (Mosquera-Losada et al. 2018). Silvopasture practices can be implemented in arable land, permanent grassland, permanent crops and forest lands. Silvoarable practices meaning the integration of woody perennials on arable land only occupy around 450 thousand hectares, mostly in the South of Europe. Silvoarable practices can be used in the 99% of the arable land implying an extraordinary potential to combate climate change through mitigation and increase biodiversity. Riparian buffer strips are woody perennials placed between and arable or permanent grassland and water bodies. Homegardens is a type of agroforestry linked to human settlements. Around 60% of lands surrounding houses have fruit trees and vegetables below and they are spared all over Europe. Forest farming is a type of agroforestry practice linked to forest lands and could be identified as those forest areas delivering no timber forest products s (NTFP) such as mushrooms, berries, medicinal plants and that usually increases profitability from forestlands in an important form

La agroforestería es una forma de uso sostenible de la tierra que integra especies leñosas (árboles/arbustos) con una producción agrícola. Se identifican cinco prácticas agroforestales: silvopastoreo, silvoarable, franjas riparias, huertos familiares y agricultura forestal. El silvopastoreo representa el 85% de los 19,5 millones de hectáreas de prácticas agroforestales en Europa y es la integración del pasto con plantas leñosas. El silvopastoreo se encuentra principalmente en el sur de Europa y solo lo utiliza el 10% de los pastizales permanentes europeos. El silvopastoreo pueden implementarse en tierras de cultivo, praderas permanentes, cultivos permanentes y tierras forestales. Las prácticas silvoarables que significan la integración de plantas perennes leñosas en tierras de cultivo solo ocupan alrededor de 450 mil hectáreas, principalmente en el sur de Europa. Las prácticas silvoarables se pueden utilizar en el 99% de la tierra cultivable, lo que implica un potencial extraordinario para combatir el cambio climático mediante la mitigación y aumentar la biodiversidad. Las franjas ribereñas son plantas perennes leñosas colocadas entre zonas arables o praderas y el curso de los ríos. Los huertos familiares son un tipo de agroforestería vinculada a los asentamientos humanos. Alrededor del 60% de las tierras que rodean las casas tienen árboles frutales y verduras a continuación y se conservan en toda Europa. La agricultura forestal es un tipo de práctica agroforestal vinculada a las tierras forestales y podría identificarse como aquellas áreas forestales que no entregan productos forestales maderables (PFNM) como hongos, bayas, plantas medicinales y que aumentan la rentabilidad de las tierras forestales de una forma importante

Agroforestry is one of the most useful tools to increase farming systems sustainability while increasing their resilience and adapt them to climate change. One of the main challenges of agroforestry is to have a clear definition. Agroforestry is defined by the deliberately integration and combination of a woody perennial (tree and/or shrub) with an agricultural product produced in the below level of the system. Woody perennials could be fruit trees, timber trees or shrubs. The agricultural product produced in the lower story could be herbaceous (annual or perennial crops) and woody (i.e. biomass production from short rotation coppices). Woody component design could be homogeneously distributed but also in frames on which trees are surrounding the plots. Agroforestry can be useful at plot level increasing biodiversity, carbon sequestration but also at landscape level reducing the contamination of waters. Fruit from trees such as acorns from oaks allows to feed animals during autumn, but some farmers also feed their animals with fruits (i.e. apple) when the concentrate prices are too high and the income they receive from the fruits too low allowing them to get a benefit from the difference. Agroforestry is a type of land use that can be used in any type of land cover as five practices (silvoarable, silvopasture, riparian buffer strips, in agricultural land cover, silvopasture and forest farming in forest land cover and homegardens (vegetables and fruit trees) in periurban and urban areas.

La agroforestería es una de las herramientas más eficaces para aumentar la sostenibilidad de los sistemas agrícolas al tiempo que aumenta su resiliencia y los adapta al cambio climático. Es importante definir la agroforestería para favorecerla en Europa. La agroforestería se define mediante la integración deliberada de una planta leñosa perenne (árbol y / o arbusto) con un producto agrícola producido en el estrato inferior del sistema. La vegetación leñosa podría ser árboles forestales, frutales o maderables, y arbustos. El producto agrícola del estrato inferior podría ser herbáceo o leñoso. La disposición del componente leñoso podría distribuirse homogéneamente dentro de la parcela, pero también en marcos reales o ubicarse rodeando las parcelas. La agroforestería puede ser útil a escala de parcela, aumentando la biodiversidad, el secuestro de carbono, y también a escala paisaje, reduciendo la contaminación de las aguas. El uso del fruto de especies árbóreas como Quercus (bellotas) permite a los agricultores alimentar a sus animales durante el otoño. Algunos agricultores alimentan el ganado con frutas (como la manzana) cuando los precios de los concentrados son demasiado altos y los ingresos por los frutos demasiado bajos, lo que les permite ahorrarse la diferencia. La agroforestería es un tipo de uso de la tierra que se puede utilizar en cualquier tipo de cubierta del territorio mediante el empleo de cinco prácticas (silvoarable, silvopastoral y franjas riparias, en tierras agrícolas, producciones complementarias al terreno forestal y silvopastoreo en zona forestal, y huertos familiares (combinación de hortalizas y árboles frutales) en áreas periurbanas y urbanas.

Alley cropping, or planting trees or other woody perennials in rows in arable or vegetable fields, is an innovative idea worthy of exploration by farmers seeking both an additional long-term income, rather than income based solely on annual or perennial production, and to increase the environmental resilience of their farming system. Trees recommended for alley cropping are those providing fine hardwood timber or edible nuts or fruits, but also other added-value products, like syrup or medicine: alder, birch, European ash, black walnut, aspen, poplars, willow, maple, apple, pear, cherry and plum are examples of these type of trees. Alley crops that can be grown are fruit bearing shrubs, regular and forage crops, ornamental and medicinal crops, coppice biomass crops, ornamental woody plants (dogwood, curly birch, curly willow), high value fruits or superfood: blueberries, currant, saskatoon, gooseberries, American hazel... Producing agricultural products combined with trees or other woody perennials leads to a diversification of the farm products, thus minimizing risks due to climatic events or to uncertain markets.At the same time as increasing the resilience of the system and increasing biodiversity. Trees contribute to reduce soil erosion and leaching of excess nutrients, improving at the same time the soil organic matter content, and storing more carbon compared to conventional agriculture.

Peltometsäviljely tai puiden istutus viljelyalueille on innovatiivinen idea erityisesti niille viljelijöille, jotka haluavat saada lisää pitkän aikavälin tuloja ja jotka haluavat parantaa maataloustuotantonsa ympäristöystävällisyyttä. Peltometsäviljelyyn suositellut puulajit tarjoavat arvokasta puutavaraa tai syötäviä pähkinöitä tai hedelmiä, mutta myös muita lisäarvotuotteita kuten siirappia tai tuotteita, joilla on lääkinnällisiä ominaisuuksia. Tällaisia lajeja ovat mm. tervaleppä, koivu, saarni, mustajalopähkinä, haapa, poppelit, pajut, vaahtera, omena, päärynä, kirsikka ja luumu. Viljelykasveiksi sopivat marjapensaat, tavalliset ja rehuviljelykasvit, koristekasvit ja lääkekasvit, energiakasvit, koristekasvit (kanukat, visakoivu, valkosalava), arvokkaat hedelmät tai superruoat kuten mustikat, herukat , saskatoonit, karviaiset, amerikanpähkinäpensaat jne. Maataloustuotteiden tuotanto yhdistettynä puuntuotantoon johtaa maataloustuotteiden monipuolistamiseen, mikä minimoi äärimmäisten sääolosuhteiden tai epävakaiden markkinoiden aiheuttamat riskit. Samalla lisätään järjestelmän ympäristöystävällisyyttä ja lisätään biologista monimuotoisuutta. Puut vähentävät maaperän eroosion ja ylimääräisten ravintoaineiden huuhtoutumista, parantavat samanaikaisesti maaperän orgaanisen aineksen säilyttämistä ja sitovat enemmän hiiltä kuin perinteinen maatalous. Esimerkiksi Etelä-Suomessa eroosioherkimmillä rinnepelloilla tuulensuojat vähensivät tuulen nopeutta ja eroosionvaikutusta. Ilmastomuutoksen vuoksi poikkeuksellisen kesäkuivuuden odotetaan yleistyvän lähitulevaisuudessa myös pohjoisilla leveysasteilla.

Olive trees in Mediterranean grazing systems offer many advantages in agroforestry systems. During the hot and dry summer, the shade of the olive trees provides a better animal welfare and better climatic conditions for the development of the grass; moreover, during the winter, when the pastures are poor in herbs, the olive trees provide a high quality feeding to ewes from the pruning residuals. The nutritive value of olive tree leaves is greater when fed fresh, although dry leaves may be incorporated in the diet. When olive leaves are rich in oil, ruminal protozoa decrease, and this could increase the efficiency of microbial protein synthesis in the rumen. It has also been observed that for lactating animals, olive tree leaves result in an improvement in milk fat quality compared to diets based on conventional forages (Molina-Alcaide and Yáñez-Ruiz 2008). Olive tree leaves are by-products with high linolenic acid content, which can be used as dietary ingredients to increase Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA) content of sheep milk fat (Tsiplakou et al. 2008). Feeding olive tree leaves to ewes has also a positive effect on fatty acid profile of cheese improving its human nutrition quality (Giacinti et al. 2016).

Gli alberi di olivo nei pascoli mediterranei offrono molti vantaggi nei sistemi agroforestali. Durante l'estate calda e secca, l'ombra degli ulivi offre riparo agli animali e crea un microclima favorevole allo sviluppo dell'erba; inoltre, durante l'inverno, quando i pascoli sono stentati, gli ulivi forniscono un'alimentazione di alta qualità alle pecore con i residui di potatura. Il valore nutritivo delle foglie di ulivo fresco è maggiore, sebbene anche le foglie secche possono essere incorporate nella dieta. Quando le foglie di olivo sono ricche di olio, i protozoi ruminali diminuiscono e questo può aumentare l'efficienza della sintesi proteica microbica nel rumine. È stato osservato che per gli animali in lattazione le foglie di ulivo migliorano la qualità del grasso del latte rispetto alle diete a base di foraggi convenzionali (Molina-Alcaide and Yáñez-Ruiz 2008). Le foglie di olivo sono sottoprodotti con alto contenuto di acido linolenico, che possono essere utilizzati come ingredienti alimentari per aumentare il contenuto di Acido Linoleico Coniugato (CLA) del grasso del latte negli ovini (Tsiplakou et al. 2008). L'alimentazione con foglie di ulivo per le pecore ha un effetto positivo sul profilo di acidi grassi del formaggio, migliorando la sua qualità nutrizionale (Giacinti G. et al. 2016).

In this report, the spatial organization of an agroforestry field is discussed. When choosing the distances between the trees in a row as well as between the tree rows, it is not sufficient to take only the growing space of an individual tree into account. . More aspects are important and highlighted by agroforesters, among which: - Sufficient space for machinery and maintenance, between the tree rows as well as at headland area; - Minimizing tree shading on the crop; - Maximizing windbreak function; - Taking into account the purpose (high-quality wood, fruit production, etc.). It is often recommended to keep a row distance of at least twice the length of mature trees, in order to minimize the reduction in crop production through increasing tree shading. However, the in practice used distances on agroforestry fields, are often based on the width of the widest machine that is used on the field and counts an extra buffer of at least one meter at each side of the tree row. Regarding the planting distance within the row, if a closed tree crown cover is preferred, the trees need to be planted closer than the final tree crown width: e.g., to have a closed tree crown cover for trees with a crown width of 12 m, the trees should be planted at 10 m. However, trees should not be planted too close to eachother, because each tree still needs suficient space to develop his crown. Several factors play a role when determining the orientation of the tree rows. Taking into account the sun and the wind in Flanders, tree rows should be planted as north-south oriented as possible.

De ruimtelijke organisatie bij aanleg van een agroforestry perceel is cruciaal. Bij de keuze van de tussenafstanden, zowel tussen de bomen binnen een rij als tussen de bomenrijen onderling, volstaat het niet om enkel rekening te houden met de groeiruimte per individuele boom. Meerdere aspecten zijn van tel, waaronder: Voldoende ruimte voor machines en onderhoud, zowel tussen de bomenrijen als op de kopakkers; Beperken van schaduwworp door de bomen op het gewas; Maximaliseren van windschermfunctie; Rekening houden met de doelstelling (kwaliteitshout, vruchtproductie,...). Vaak wordt aangeraden een rijenafstand van tenminste twee keer de volwassen lengte van de bomen te hanteren, dit om een minimale afname van de gewasproductie door toenemende schaduw van de bomen doorheen de jaren te bekomen. De afstanden die in de praktijk op agroforestrypercelen gehanteerd worden, zijn echter vaak gebaseerd op (een veelvoud van) de breedte van het breedste werktuig dat op de percelen ingezet wordt. Reken daar aan elke zijde een extra buffer van toch minstens één meter bij. Als, wat de plantafstand in de rij betreft, een gesloten kronenrij gewenst is, wordt enkele meters dichter geplant dan de uiteindelijke kroonbreedte: om een gesloten kronenrij te krijgen met bomen met een kroonbreedte van 12 m, plant je ze best op 10 m. Plant de bomen echter niet te dicht bij elkaar, want elke boom moet nog steeds voldoende ruimte krijgen om zijn kroon te ontwikkelen. Wat de oriëntatie van de bomenrijen betreft, spelen verschillende factoren een rol. Rekening houdend met de zon en de wind in Vlaanderen, plant je de rijen echter best zo noord-zuid geörienteerd mogelijk.

The amount of biomass available in the understory layer of montado systems can contribute for the increase of fire hazard. Mechanical operations for controlling biomass accumulation are costly, contribute to increase soil erosion and damage tree superficial root. On the other hand, the understory layer of montado is characterized by a large diversity of wild plants that may be used for essential oil distillation, turning them into an extra income for the farm. For instance, Cistus ladanifer distillation may have only a yield of 1,5 litre Megagrams-1 of plant, whereas Foeniculum vulgare may have 70-140 kg ha-1. Since only some of the flowers and leaves need to be picked (sometimes seeds too), this practice may coexist with other sustainable land uses such as apiculture and grazing.he distillation of essential oils may be carried out by industrial or traditional procedures. Considering the latest, before going into the boiler the wild plants are cut into small pieces or shredded, depending on species. The pressure, time and yield of the distillation and also the yield can vary significantly: one hour at very low pressure (Achyrocline species), 7 to 8 hours (Juniperus sp), 12 hours at higher pressure in some species (Cistus ladanifer). The hydrolates and the essential oil are then filtrated. Although distillation can represent a significant extra income (values from 2011 for Borago officinalis L. reach 14,8 thousand € ha-1) and its products are largely sought after by the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries (a variety of organic aromatic compounds), there is still little interest by the Portuguese national industry. Frequently local producers mostly export their products or sell little quantities to small, traditional soap producers or similar.

A quantidade de biomassa do subcoberto dos montados pode contribuir para o risco de incêndio. As operações de controlo mecânico da biomassa são dispendiosas, contribuen para o aumento da erosão do solo e danificar o sistema radicular superficial das árvores. O subcoberto do montado caracteriza-se por uma grande variedade de plantas espontâneas que podem ser utilizadas na destilação de óleos essenciais, rendimento extra da exploração. A destilação de Cistus ladanifer poderá ter um rendimento de apenas 1,5 litres Mg-1 de planta, enquanto que no caso do Foeniculum vulgare alcançara 70-140 kg ha-1. Como apenas algumas das flores e folhas (e por vezes sementes) necessitam ser colhidas, esta prática coexiste com outros usos sustentáveis como apicultura e pastorícia.A destilação dos óleos essenciais pode ser feita por métodos industriais ou artesanais. Neste último caso, antes de serem colocadas na caldeira as plantas são cortadas em pequenos pedaços ou moídas, dependendo da espécie. A pressão, tempo e rendimento da destilação variam significativamente: uma hora a baixa pressão (espécies de Achyrocline), 7 a 8 horas (Juniper), até 12 horas e alta pressão nalgumas espécies (Cistus ladanifer). O hidrolato e o óleo essencial são depois filtrados. Embora a destilação possa representar um rendimento extra significativo (valores de 2011 para o Borago officinalis L. referiam um ganho anual de 14,8 milhares € ha-1), e os seus produtos sejam bastante procurados pelas industrias cosmética e farmacêutica (compostos orgânicos aromáticos), ainda há pouca procura por parte da industria. Frequentemente, os produtores locais exportam a maioria dos seus produtos ou vendem pequenas quantidades a pequenos produtores de sabonetes tradicionais ou semelhantes.

In the Portuguese Northern region, a traditional system originated from the middle ages persists, although with an alarming decreasing area: the ‘hanged vineyard’ (‘vinha do enforcado’). The system is based on the combined production of grapes for wine production, cultivated around the limits of the agricultural plots, deliberately managed in a vertical position (reaching 4 m or more) with the support of trees such as Platanus spp, Celtis australis, Fraxinus spp etc. Inside the plots, arable crops production or pastoral activities are carried out.
In this system trees are pruned annually in order to supply of tree fodder to animals, reducing the shading of vines by the trees that ultimately would restrict the grapes development and maturation and/or ramial chipped wood production for the improvement of soil properties (ex: pH, OM). For this reason, tree species known to be suitable for coppicing practices are the ones selected for this purpose.
The regional plant varieties used in the ‘vinha do enforcado’ (Biscainho, Sousão, Sesão forte de Basto, Azal, Espadeira, Borraçal, Verdelho and Murrão) present distinct characteristics when compared to other vineyards: i) high predominance of vertical growth; ii) high tolerance to shadow; iii) distinct grape organoleptic properties. These varieties and management specificities, both now endangered, originate a unique type of wine, with specific properties, that should be considered by the wine industry.

Na região Norte de Portugal encontramos um sistema ancestral, originário da idade média, o qual se apresenta em acentuado decréscimo em área de dispersão: a vinha do enforcado. O sistema baseia-se no cultivo das videiras para produção de vinho nos limites das parcelas agrícolas, deliberadamente geridas para promover o crescimento em altura (até 4 metros ou mais), suportado por postes vivos de árvores de espécies como o plátano (Platanus spp), lódão bastardo (Celtis australis), freixo (Fraxinus spp) etc. O interior das parcelas é dedicado ao cultivo de culturas agrícolas e/ou atividades de pastorícia.
Neste sistema as árvores são podadas anualmente por forma a permitir a obtenção de forragem para os animais, a redução da quantidade de sombra que resultaria na limitação do desenvolvimento e maturação do fruto (uvas) e/ou a produção de ‘ramial chipped wood’ para melhoria das propriedades do solo (ex. pH, MO). Por esta razão, as espécies arbóreas utilizadas neste sistema necessitam de apresentar a capacidade de serem geridas em talhadia de cabeça.
As variedades regionais das videiras encontradas na ‘vinha do enforcado’ (Biscainho, Sousão, Sesão forte de Basto, Azal, Espadeira, Borraçal, Verdelho and Murrão) apresentam características distintas de outras videiras: i) maior predominância de crescimento na vertical (trepadeiras); ii) maior tolerância à sombra; iii) propriedades organoléticas distintas. Estas variedades originam a produção de um vinho com características distintas, ainda pouco conhecidas do setor do vinho.

Due to low cost-effectiveness of milk production or the labour intensity, many of dairy farmers are moving towards beef cattle production. They are keen to effectively use permanent grasslands (partly wooded) that presently is not in compliance with Good Agricultural and Environmental Conditions neither able to be paid by the CAP Pillar I. And beef cattle breeding is not labour-intensive, also with regard to livestock buildings. In temperate climate, the cattle can be kept outside even during winters (e.g. Highland, Limousine) and this does not have negative effect on cows calving. However, bed place on pastures should be covered with dry straw and clean water and coarse fodder should be available to animals. Trees protect animals against trong winds improving heat balance of their bodies. The main strengths of the silvopasture system are: diversification of production on permanent grasslands with difficult access; restoration of abandoned lands to initial agricultural state; very low labour intensity in comparison to milk production; high-quality meat products (organic or local sold to trusted customers); soil and water protection; lower costs of heat production on farm; sale of wood to local buyers; greater biodiversity of grasslands; animal welfare improvement; local social added value. The main weaknesses: low/lack of support for woodland management; high start-up costs; slow capital trading and long-term investment; regionally differentiated wood prices and demand; different productivity and species composition of woodland/private forest habitats.

Z powodu niskiej opłacalności produkcji mleka oraz wysokiej pracochłonności wielu hodowców przestawia się na chów bydła mięsnego. Rolnicy ci są skłonni wykorzystywać ekstensywne pastwiska (częściowo zadrzewione), które do tej chwili nie przynosiły dochodu i nie były objęte zasadami zwykłej dobrej praktyk rolniczej w ramach płatności bezpośrednich. Bydło mięsne nie wymaga drogich budynków inwentarskich oraz wysokich nakładów pracy. Ponadto, w klimacie umiarkowanym, bydło ras Highland czy Limousine może być z powodzeniem utrzymywane na pastwisku nawet w okresie zimy i nie ma to negatywnego wpływu na sukces wycieleń. Na pastwiskach powinny się jednak znajdować legowiska z suchą słomą a zwierzęta muszą mieć dostęp do czystej wody i paszy objętościowej. Występowanie drzew (naturalnych lub dosadzanych) chroni przed wiatrem i pomaga w utrzymaniu bilansu cieplnego. Główne zalety systemu: dywersyfikacja produkcji na gruntach z utrudnionym dostępem, przywrócenie nieużytkowanych gruntów do produkcji rolniczej, niskie nakłady pracy w porównaniu z produkcją mleczarską, wysoka jakość wołowiny sprzedawanej jako produkt ekologiczny/lokalny zaufanym konsumentom, niższe koszty ogrzewania budynków własnym drewnem, zysk ze sprzedaży drewna, ochrona gleb i wód, poprawa bioróżnorodności łąki i zdrowotności zwierząt, wzrost wartości dodanej regionu. Główne wady: brak wsparcia do produkcji drewna w zadrzewieniach, wysokie koszty początkowe długoterminowej inwestycji, wolny obrót kapitału; zróżnicowanie stawek cen drewna oraz popytu w zależności od regionu, różna produktywność drzew oraz skład gatunkowy zadrzewień.

AFINET - Agroforestry innovation network (1 of 2)

AFINET - Red de Innovación Agroforestal (1 of 2)

Context

Objectives

Objectives

Activities

Activities

Additional comments

Additional information

Project details

Location

EUR 1 999 987.00

Total budget

Project keyword

Resources

100 Practice Abstracts

Contacts

Project coordinator

Escuela Politécnica Superior de Ingeniería

Project partners

USC

Sections

AFINET - Agroforestry innovation network (1 of 2) AFINET - Red de Innovación Agroforestal (1 of 2)

Context

Objectives

Objectives

Activities

Activities

Additional comments

Additional information

Project details

Location

EUR 1 999 987.00

Total budget

Project keyword

Resources

100 Practice Abstracts

The benefits of growing herbs in homegardens

Fűszer-és gyógynövények termesztése agroerdészeti rendszerekben

Developing a self-sustaining agro-forestry family farm

Önfenntartó agroerdészeti családi gazdaság kialakítása

Utilization of less favorable farming areas for short rotation energy tree plantations and crops in rotation

Mezőgazdaság számára kevésbé előnyös termőhelyek kihasználása rövid vágásfordulójú energetikai faültetvény-mezőgazdasági növény vetésforgóval

Woodchips heating systems to support tree hedges

Des chaufferies à bois-énergie au service du maintien du bocage

Pollarding: bringing old pollards back into production

The economics of harvesting hedges for bioenergy

Managing hedges for firewood production: a case study

Alternative uses for agroforestry products: woodchip for livestock bedding

Some different alternatives for forest understorey crops

Erilaisia vaihtoehtoja peltometsäviljelykasveiksi

Use of diverse grazers

Monipuolisten laiduntajien käyttö

Tourism activities related to silvopastoral systems: herder holiday, GreenCare, adventure holiday.

Suomen Lapissa maaseutumatkailu on hyvin kehittynyttä

Fruit production in agroforestry systems: how to make the right species and variety choice?

Fruitproductie in agroforestry systemen: hoe kies je de juiste soort en variëteit?

Late budding walnut varieties: an asset for temperate agroforestry systems?

Laat uitlopende walnootvariëteiten: een troef voor agroforestry systemen in een gematigd klimaat

Technical days and trainings during open farms day: learning by doing

Des journées techniques et des formations "à la ferme": apprendre de façon pratique

Using woodchips as bedding for stables: a practical and economic way of revalorisation for tree hedges

Utiliser des plaquettes pour la litière des étables : une façon pratique et économique de revaloriser les haies

Intensify small areas with multiple layers of high-value products: agroforestry systems with fruits and vegetable productions

Intensifier l'utilisation de l'espace dans des petites parcelles grâce à l'association mixte de fruits et légumes: le verger-maraîcher

Bio-economy products: alternative uses of shrubs

Bioeconomía: uso alternativo de los arbustos

Bio-economy products: alternative uses of trees

Bioeconomía: uso alternativo de los árboles

Agroforestry and the EU biodiversity strategy

La agroforestería y la estrategia europea de la biodiversidad

Mobile system to manage free range pigs in woodlands

Sistema móbil para la gestión de cerdos en libertad en masas forestales

Nutritional value of shrubs in agroforestry systems

Valor nutricional de los arbustos en sistemas agroforestales

Technical information on the use of agroforestry to prevent forest fires

Información técnica sobre el uso de la agroforestería para prevenir los incendios forestales

Production of medicinal plants in agroforestry systems

Producción de plantas medicinales en sistemas agroforestales

The most suitable cereal varieties (wheat, rye,…) for agroforestry systems

Las variedades de cereales más adecuadas (trigo, centeno,…) para sistemas agroforestales.

Mushroom production in agroforestry systems

Producción de setas en sistemas agroforestales

Fertilization in Agroforestry Systems

Fertilización en sistemas agroforestales

Multifunctional use of chestnut forest in Galicia

Uso multifunctional del bosque de castaño en Galicia

Climate change mitigation and agroforestry systems

Mitigación del cambio climático y los sistemas agroforestales

Enhancing biodiversity in agroforestry systems

Promoviendo la biodiversidad en los sistemas agroforestales

Agroforestry systems: climate change adaptation and resilience

Sistemas agroforestales: adaptación al cambio climático y la resiliencia

Innovative silvoarable system with herbs for small farms

Innowacyjny system rolno-leśny z ziołami dla małych gospodarstw

Creation of small wetlands on the farms

Kosteikkojen perustaminen maatiloille

How to protect young trees against grazing livestock or game? - Hungarian farmers' experiences

Facsemeték védelme a legelő állatoktól és a vadkártól – Magyarországi gazdálkodók tapasztalatai

Sustainable fruit growing in unfavorable site conditions - Creating a protected orchard with local varieties

Fenntartható gyümölcstermesztés előnytelen termőhelyen - védősávos erdőkert létrehozása tájfajtákkal

AFINET - Agroforestry innovation network (1 of 2)

AFINET - Red de Innovación Agroforestal (1 of 2)