The widespread use of pesticides in agriculture has improved food production and pest control but has also raised concerns about residual contamination in staple crops such as grains and vegetables. The improper application of pesticides, especially during storage of crops such as cowpea, has resulted in high levels of pesticide residues, posing risks to human health, and significant trade restrictions, especially by the European Union. However, there is limited awareness among value-chain actors about the appropriate use of pesticides and alternative approaches to controlling pests. Besides, there is limited evidence in Africa about the prevalence and effects of pesticides to support regulatory, policy and investment decisions. 

FS4Africa project is tackling this challenge through Use Case 2 (UC2) by addressing the improper use of pesticides and reducing antibiotic resistance across multiple stages of the value chain in Benin, Ghana and Nigeria. It aims to mitigate high levels of pesticide residues in crops, particularly during storage, by promoting good practices and alternative solutions, such as hermetic storage. Additionally, UC2 addresses the misuse of antibiotics in agriculture to minimise health and environmental risks. Research will be conducted on pesticide residues in food, soil, water, and human samples to analyse their effects on antimicrobial resistance. A microbiome approach is being utilized to understand the molecular mechanisms behind organisms’ resistance to pesticides, providing essential insights for safeguarding health and ecosystems. 

The results from UC2 will be applied to risk mitigation measures, consumer education, regulatory support, policy and investment decisions, and training materials and sessions on the appropriate use of hermetic storage bags and other techniques to manage pests.

Aflatoxins are important food safety, nutrition, and public health hazards commonly found in staple crops. They are naturally occurring toxins produced by certain species of fungi that infect crops at pre- and post-harvest stages. However, awareness about their occurrence, their health, economic, social and environmental effects and how to prevent or control them remain low among farmers and other value chain actors. Moreover, there is limited evidence in Africa about the prevalence and the health, economic and social effects of these hazards to support regulatory, policy and investment decisions. This work examines the level of consumer and the informal sector actors’ awareness of aflatoxin contamination and presents scientific evidence of exposure through food analysis and biomonitoring. The FS4Africa project is addressing this challenge of low awareness and limited evidence through Use Case 1 that focuses on improving access to aflatoxin-safe maize and groundnuts in Nigeria, Ghana, and Kenya. This is being done by connecting stakeholders and equipping them with knowledge, skills and tools for effective aflatoxin management along the food value chain. It aims to create interconnected pathways among stakeholders to enhance knowledge-sharing and develop sustainable networks. It entails co-development of Safety Hubs (e.g. living labs), in collaboration with informal actors, to provide resources such as training materials and testing instruments to address the lack of aflatoxin management resources in the informal sector. 

Understanding the key food safety attributes in this sector is crucial for designing effective interventions that enhance public health without undermining the economic viability of informal markets. This study identifies and examines the core food safety attributes that define the informal food sector: hygiene practices, sourcing and traceability, contamination risks, regulatory compliance, and consumer awareness. Key actors in the sector are involved in unregistered and unregulated food-related activities essential for livelihoods and affordable food access. The actors include smallholder farmers, traders, processors, retailers, and consumers, with midstream activities comprising 30-40% of value chain costs. 

Food Safety Issues include challenges arising from poor hygiene, chemical misuse, and inadequate infrastructure, leading to significant health risks. Weak enforcement of food safety standards exacerbates these issues. While awareness of food safety is growing, many actors in informal sectors prioritize food quality over safety. Emerging initiatives, such as direct delivery systems and organic food movements, are fostering consumer trust and improving practices. Governments’ efforts to formalize informal sectors have been limited however, enhancing infrastructure, fostering policy dialogue, and providing incentives for safe food practices can drive meaningful change.

The FS4Africa project explores best practices and innovative approaches that enhance food safety management in the informal sector. These innovative approaches include customised regulations; co-regulation where food vendors and regulators work together to encourage voluntary compliance; tailored capacity-building programmes; community-based strategies; public-private partnerships; application of low-cost technologies in food safety management; and consumer education to create a demand for safer food. 

In Ghana, innovative initiatives include revised legislations that empower local governments, Ghana Tourism Authority and Food and Drug Authority (FDA) to register, license and regulate informal food sector; a three-tiered risk-based Progressive Licensing Scheme which starts with the issuance of a pink license when an informal processing facility achieves 30- 44% compliance with Good Manufacturing Practices; adapting the existing Code for Hygienic Practice and Guidelines for Licensing Foodservice Establishments to the informal sector through the Street Food Vending Permit Initiative; and expanding FDA’s scope of regulation to include artisanal food industry through the Food Product Monitoring Programme where high-risk products are regularly monitored in the markets followed by education and training to ensure compliance with basic food safety requirements.

In South Africa, the South African Local Government Association (SALGA) is supporting the informal food sector by providing critical infrastructure such as clean water and waste disposal facilities. In Nigeria, Local Government Councils work more collaboratively with the main Regulator to provide infrastructure for food safety compliance, conduct inspections, and apply sanctions against violations in informal sector. With increasing operations of mobile food services worldwide, Egypt enacted the Law No. 92 of 2018 to regulate these services .

Food safety governance in Ghana involves a complex network of stakeholders spanning regulatory agencies, policymakers, food producers, traders, consumers, and international organizations. Understanding their roles, connections, influence and challenges will help to devise strategies to strengthen food control systems and reduce food safety violations. A net mapping analysis conducted with selected food safety experts in Ghana identified 11 stakeholder categories, namely global/continental policy and standards stakeholders; ministries and departments; regulators; donors/development partners; other international organisations; advocates; research/academia; informal and formal value chain actors; media; and consumers. 

126 stakeholders were identified within the food safety governance network in Ghana, and they are connected through eight linkages: oversight responsibility, regulatory service, education and training, infrastructure provision, advocacy, technical support, communication/dissemination, and funding. Donors/development partners were connected to most of the stakeholders through funding, infrastructure, and technical support. The most influential stakeholders in ensuring food safety in the informal food sector were consumers, informal value chain actors, the Ministry of Local Government and District Assemblies, the Ministry of Health, and the Extension Departments of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture. National regulators. The main constraints in Ghana’s informal food safety network were limited laboratories for product testing, poor food safety knowledge and practices, use of unapproved materials, lack of potable water, low uptake of research outputs, and poor coordination among stakeholders. To effectively coordinate various stakeholders, an Intersectoral Coordinating Committee was established, and its Food Safety Technical Working Group is streamlining institutional mandates of stakeholders to eliminate overlaps and duplications. 

Ensuring food safety requires appropriate enabling environments, namely policies, legislations, institutions, and other support systems. In many African countries, the enabling environment is weak and focuses less on the informal sector. Consequently, food safety compliance among informal actors is low, leading to a high prevalence of food contamination, which affects health, food security, and trade. 

In the FS4Africa project, key informant interviews and desk reviews of policies, legislations, and institutional frameworks showed high-level continental support for food safety as evident in the AU Member States’ adoption of the Food Safety Strategy for Africa and the Statute for the Establishment of a Continental Food Safety Agency. At the subregional level, several food safety policy frameworks exist, including the Food Safety Strategy for the Southern African Development Community, Harmonized Regional Regulations of the Economic Community of West African States and the SPS protocol for the East African Community. At the national level (i.e. Ghana, South Africa, Nigeria, Egypt and Kenya), existing policies and legislations often prioritize the formal sector, leaving informal markets subject to inconsistent enforcement. While legal frameworks exist, their implementation in the informal sector is hindered by weak governance, lack of resources, and limited technical capacity among food vendors. Institutional oversight is fragmented, with multiple agencies operating without clear coordination. The absence of tailored policies that consider the realities of informal actors further exacerbates food safety risks. Different enforcement approaches are required for formal and informal sectors hence, countries must develop strategies to enhance food control. The Africa Union’s initiative supporting countries to develop and implement costed food safety master plans based on gaps identified in the food control system. These results will be interrogated to identify best practices