Background. Umqombothi is a traditional South African beer made from maize, sorghum and sometimes pearl millet. Umqombothi was referred to as 'kaffir' beer in the 1950s, particularly in South African mining communities. The beer possesses profound cultural significance among black South Africans.  

Objective. The main objective is to provide a general overview of the Umqombothi value chain in South Africa and to describe the product process and characteristics. 

Results. Although malted sorghum is the primary inoculum (spontaneous fermentation) in most cases, some producers opt for yeast or commercially available beer as alternatives. Furthermore, the temperature (22–28°C) and fermentation times (2 to 4 days) vary among producers, reflecting diverse practices in informal umqombothi production, thus leading to many variations in product quality.  

Umqombothi is susceptible to spoilage if not consumed promptly, typically 1-2 days. Inconsistent ingredients quality can lead to batch failures during fermentation, occasioning quality (sensorial) and safety problems and waste. In informal brewing settings, food safety and hygiene protocols are often minimal, making it challenging to ensure the safety quality of the final product. Processors that process their own grains sometimes use sun-drying to reduce the moisture content of the grains. When poorly dried or/and stored, grains are susceptible to fungal growth - that could be accompanied by subsequent production of harmful mycotoxins – and to (potential pathogen-containing) bacterial growth.  Two case studies consisting of two groups of interconnected business operators within the Umqombothi value chain have been selected.  

Recommendations. An in-depth analysis of the selected case studies, based on a precise multi-dimensional approach by a multidisciplinary team -including socio-economists, microbiologists and food technologists- will lead to recommendations.

Background. Maziwa lala (fermented milk) originates from pastoralist communities like the Maasai, Kalenjin, and Kikuyu in the Rift Valley and central highlands to preserve milk in environments with limited water and refrigeration. It is gaining popularity for its nutritional value and probiotic benefits. Maziwa lala is part of rituals such as weddings and ceremonies, symbolising purity and goodwill.   

Objective. The main objective is to provide a general overview of the Maziwa lala value chain in Kenya and to describe the product process and characteristics. 

Results. The production of Maziwa lala begins with the collection of fresh cow milk in sanitised containers. The milk is left to ferment naturally at room temperature for 2–3 days, allowing indigenous lactic acid bacteria to produce the sour flavour and ensure preservation. After fermentation, the milk is stored in sealed containers and served as a beverage. 

Maziwa lala is appreciated by consumers for both its taste and flavour, and its nutritional value, notably its protein and calcium content. The study indicates that milk of poor quality and unsanitary handling practices are widespread, especially in informal markets. Aflatoxin B1 is converted by dairy cows into aflatoxin M1 in the cows’ milk. Since aflatoxin M1 is chemically stable, it remains throughout food processing and leads to a major issue for the safety of Maziwa lala. Its processing requires a high level of hygiene to prevent contamination by harmful microorganisms, including E. coli, S. aureus, Salmonella Spp., and Listeria monocytogenes. Two case studies consisting of two groups of interconnected business operators within the Maziwa lala value chain have been selected.  

Recommendations . An in-depth analysis of the selected case studies, based on a precise multi-dimensional approach by a multidisciplinary team -including socio-economists, microbiologists, and food technologists- will lead to recommendations.

Background. Kunun zaki is a popular non-alcoholic cereal drink that is consumed in northern Nigeria. It serves as breakfast, appetizer, medicinal remedy, and is also consumed during social gatherings. The cereals used are millet, sorghum, and maize in decreasing order of preference. 

Objective. The main objective is to provide a general overview of the Kunun zaki value chain in Nigeria and to describe the product process and characteristics. 

Results. The traditional production process involves steeping the sorghum or millet (sometimes maize or rice) grains. The duration of steeping depends on the cereal used and may vary between 12 hours for millet/sorghum and 72 hours for maize. Grinding of the steeped grains mixed with spices is done with local milling machines and part of the slurry (3/4 volume) is gelatinized with boiling water. The remaining part of the slurry (1/4 volume, non-gelatinised) containing liquifying agents is mixed with the gelatinised portion when the temperature is about 60-70 °C. The mixture is left overnight at room temperature for spontaneous fermentation and filtered using a local sieve the next morning. Faster and more modern processes produce Kunun zaki thanks to ready-to-use millet or sorghum flour, which reduces the processing time from 120 hours to 10-12 hours.  

The main signals pointing to quality issues with Kunun zaki are the change in the colour of the final product, the visual development of mould and an unpleasant taste and/or odour. The main hazards known to the stakeholders in the Kunun zaki value chain include mycotoxins, bacterial hazards, and physical hazards. Two case studies consisting of two groups of interconnected business operators within the Kunun zaki value chain have been selected.  

Recommendations . An in-depth analysis of the case studies, based on a multi-dimensional approach by a team -including socio-economists, microbiologists and food technologists- will lead to recommendations.

Background. Coco baca is a porridge, traditionally from millet. However, due to the high cost of millet, the raw material of Coco baca has now shifted to maize. The Gontougo (Bondoukou) region in northeastern Côte d'Ivoire is traditionally the main production and consumption area for Coco baca. 

Objective. The main objective is to provide a general overview of the Coco baca value chain in Cote d’Ivoire and to describe the product process and characteristics. 

Results. Two production processes coexist: 1/ the traditional process (the most widespread) involves soaking maize or millet grains in water for 1–5 days to extract starch, followed by grinding the grains into flour, which is dissolved in water, filtered and fermented for 24 hours to 7 days at room temperature. After spontaneous fermentation, the starch is diluted and cooked with ingredients like pepper, ginger or anise and cane sugar; 2/ semi-industrial Coco baca is produced the same way but the process ends with a drying step before the product is reduced to powder. Production remains traditional but it incorporates modifications like standardised soaking, fermentation and modern equipment. 

Several safety hazards have been identified throughout the value chain. Mould contamination along maize or millet supply chains, as well as the lack of hygiene along the process. These hazards can be of microbiological origin, mostly due to the contamination and growth of mould (on the cobs and during storage); and to bacterial contamination from inadequate hygiene practices during transformation. Two case studies consisting in two groups of interconnected business operators within the Coco baca value chain have been selected.  

Recommendations. An in-depth analysis of the selected case studies, based on a precise multi-dimensional approach by a multidisciplinary team —including socio-economists, microbiologists and food technologists—will lead to recommendations. 

Background. Akpan is a traditional cereal-based fermented product, valued for its smooth, yoghurt-like consistency. Cereals used are mainly maize, with some minimal sorghum. Akpan is predominantly consumed in Benin and across West Africa, just after lunch, or as a refreshing snack between lunch and dinner. It is mainly produced in the south of Benin as a street food. 

Objective. The main objective is to provide a general overview of the Akpan value chain in Benin and to describe the product process and characteristics. 

Results. To obtain Akpan, processors extract starch from cereals, ferment it and then precook it. Starch extraction starts with grain sorting. In the case of maize, grains are soaked for 6-24 hours in cold or warm water, followed by milling of soaked and drained grains and wet sieving to separate starch from hulls. For sorghum, sorted and dried grains are milled and dry-sieved, then soaked for 6 hours. The extracted starch is fermented spontaneously with the sieving water on top for 24 to 72 hours. The fermented starch is finally precooked to obtain Akpan.  

A high quality Akpan should be smooth and lump free with a pleasant aroma, and a slightly acidic taste. The results reveal several major quality and safety challenges for the value chain, such as lack of applicable quality standards and control measures associated with lack of knowledge of the actors concerning food hygiene. Although the study seems to reveal a low level of mould contamination in Akpan, poor drying and storage conditions of cereals are revealed as being sources of mould contamination.  Two case studies consisting of two groups of interconnected business operators within the Akpan value chain have been selected. 

Recommendations . An in-depth analysis of the case studies, based on a precise multi-dimensional approach by a team -including socio-economists, microbiologists and food technologists- will enable the development of recommendations.

Background. Mycotoxins pose a significant threat to food safety especially in low-income settings by contaminating staples like maize and groundnuts. Risk assessment plays an important role in understanding the magnitude of the risks attributed to exposure to these hazards via food consumption. To improve food safety and guide evidence-based mitigation strategies, the UP-RISE project validated a risk assessment toolkit originally developed under the H2020 FoodSafety4EU project. Validation used mycotoxin data from public sources, including the WHO’s food safety collaborative platform database.  

Objective. The objective is to validate and adapt the FoodSafety4EU toolkit for use in African countries, where food safety challenges —such as inadequate storage, climate conditions, and limited regulatory enforcement— heighten mycotoxin exposure risks. The toolkit integrates mycotoxin occurrence data and food consumption patterns to assess long-term health risks and guide mitigation strategies.  

Results 

Background. Mycotoxins are toxic compounds produced mainly by Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium fungi, contaminating food and threatening food safety and security. The most harmful mycotoxins include aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), deoxynivalenol (DON), ochratoxin A (OTA) and zearalenone (ZEN). High temperature, humidity, crop damage and poor storage favour contamination. In Africa, AFs and FBs are widespread in staple crops like maize, sorghum, and millet, often exceeding the established safety limits. Many African countries still lack effective monitoring and control systems, complicating safe food production. 

Objective. This study reviews mycotoxin contamination in staple cereals and fermented foods across Kenya, Benin, Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria and South Africa. Data from 2014–2024 (2011 for Benin) were classified by country, sample category (primary, processed, fermented food), analytical method and mycotoxin type.  

Results. Sixty-five papers were collected. The sum of total samples analysed varied from 300 (Benin) to 8,500 (Kenya). LC-MS/MS was mainly used in Nigeria and South Africa, while ELISA and other rapid tests prevailed in Kenya and Benin. AFs and FBs were the most detected mycotoxins, with highest levels in Nigeria and Kenya. Other mycotoxins such as OTA, DON, and ZEN were more frequent in Côte d’Ivoire and Nigeria. 

Recommendation. Widespread mycotoxin contamination in Africa poses serious risks to food safety, public health, and rural economies, making it difficult to source high-quality raw materials and produce safe food. African countries need to develop and implement effective mycotoxin monitoring and management strategies integrated into food value chain policies. The UP-RISE project data, combined with weather and agronomic information, will help identify gaps in current management practices and support stronger food safety governance across the continent.