Crop diversification and low-input farming across Europe: from practitioners engagement and ecosystems services to increased revenues and chain organisation

After 4 years of field experimentation, and 16 case studies on crop diversification across Europe, a comparative analysis of their economic results is carried out to draw global conclusions on the economic impact of crop diversification. These case studies include rainfed and irrigated crops, annual and permanent crops (cereals, citrus, fruit trees, vegetables, and vines), as well as different types of diversification (rotations, intercropped and associated crops, and multiple crops). To carry out this comparison, the farm level economic results of crop diversifications are analysed, together with the variations with respect to monoculture. This evidences that crop diversification does not generate significant changes in the financial results for farmers compared with monocrops, and, if it does, they are expected to be positive, as diversified vegetables have shown. This analysis is extended with the assessment of the environmental and socio-cultural benefits/costs that both farming systems provide, so that all the impacts of diversification are addressed in an integrated way. Thus, the increase in the provision of ecosystem services by diversified agricultural systems enhances the economic results of diversification, both in the short and in the medium and long term, which gives greater positive differences between the performance of diversified and monocropping systems.

Tras 4 años de experimentación en campo, y un total de 16 casos de estudio sobre diversificación de cultivos repartidos por toda Europa, se lleva a cabo un análisis comparativo de sus resultados económicos con el fin de extraer unas conclusiones globales sobre el impacto económico esperado de la diversificación de cultivos. Estos casos de estudio comprenden cultivos tanto de secano y regadío como cultivos anuales y permanentes (cereales, cítricos, frutales, hortalizas, y vid), así como diferentes tipos de diversificación (rotaciones, cultivos intercalados y asociados, y cultivos múltiples). Para realizar esta comparativa, se analizan, en primer lugar, los resultados financieros de las diversificaciones a nivel de finca, así como las variaciones esperadas con respecto al monocultivo. De este modo, se evidencia que la diversificación de cultivos no genera cambios significativos en los resultados financieros para los agricultores, y, en caso de que lo haga, se espera que sean positivos, como es el caso de las hortalizas bajo diversificación. Este análisis se amplía con la valoración de los beneficios/costes ambientales y socioculturales que ambos sistemas de cultivo proporcionan, con el fin de poder considerar de forma integrada todos los impactos de la diversificación. Así, el aumento en la provisión de servicios ecosistémicos por los sistemas agrícolas diversificados potencia los resultados económicos de la diversificación, tanto en el corto como en el medio y largo plazo, lo que hace surgir mayores diferencias positivas entre el desempeño de los sistemas diversificados y el monocultivo.

Nitrous oxide fluxes of soils have been measured at nine case study sites. No clear effect of diversification can be demonstrated. Soil nitrous oxide emissions increased in two sites, decreased in two sites, and there were no significant changes in five sites. Nitrous oxide emissions are controlled by several factors. N2O is produced in the soil by oxidation (nitrification) and reduction (denitrification) processes. Nitrification) processes are mostly characteristic of dry, well aerated soils while denitrification is dominant in wetter soils. In drier soils, NO emissions are more typical, since nitrous oxide as a denitrification intermediate is released before it is converted into N2O. In wetter soils, the reduction continues until the formation of N2O, even in saturated soil the end product of the processes is the elemental nitrogen (N2). Another factor which affects the N2O emission is the availability of substrates in soils (like nitrate and ammonium) and the organic carbon content. Application of manure or synthetic fertilizer increases substrate concentration. It is true that the uptake of nutrients by plants also increases but the efficiency of fertilizers is globally below 50%. A great part of ammonium, nitrate or carbamide applied transforms into N2O. It can also be an influencing factor whether the fertilizer application takes place directly on the cultivated crop or also on inter-rows. Observations proved the relationship between the organic matter content and nitrogen emission of soils. Diversification enhances the soil organic matter content by humification of plants remaining on soil (litter decomposition) or in soil (decomposition of root remains).

a dinitrogén-oxidnál pedig nem mutatható ki a diverzifikáció egyértelmű hatása. A vizsgált 9 case study esetén, 2 helyen nőtt, két helyen csökkent a talaj N2O kibocsátása, öt helyen nem történt szignifikáns változás. A dinitrogén-oxid emissziót sok tényező befolyásolja. Az N2O a talajban oxidációs (nitrifikáció) és redukciós (denitrifikáció) folyamatokkal keletkezik. Előbbi inkább oxigén dús közegben, utóbbi inkább oxigéntől elzárt, vizes talajoknál figyelhető meg. Szárazabb talajokra inkább az NO kibocsátás jellemző, mivel ez a denitrifikációs köztitermék még azelőtt felszabadul, mielőtt N2O-vá alakulna. Nedvesebb talajoknál a redukció az N2O-isg, sőt az elemi N2 keletkezéséig is végbemehet. A kopár talaj vízmegtartó képessége kisebb a növényzettel borított talajokénál, ami tehát inkább NO képződéshez vezet. Az NO viszont nem tekinthető üveggáznak, egyrészt mivel kétatomos molekula és az infravörös elnyelése kevésbé hatékony az N2O-horz képest, másrészt a légkörben gyors folyamatokkal átalakul, emiatt a koncentrációja jóval kisebb az N2O-hoz képest. A diverzifikáció tehát ebből a szempontból növelheti az N2O kibocsátást. A talaj N2O kibocsátása és szerves széntartalma között egyértelmű összefüggés van. Ugyanúgy, ahogy a talaj mikroflórája és -faunája is erősen összefügg a talaj szerves anyag tartalmával. Az pedig egyértelmű, hogy a szubsztrát tartalom (ammónium és nitrát) pozitívan hat a dinitrogén-oxid keletkezésére. Műtrágyázás, vagy szerves trágyázás esetén a szubsztrát tartalom megnő. Igaz, a növényzet tápanyag felvétele is nő, viszont tény, hogy a felhasznált műtrágyák N-tartalmának 50%-a elvész, a környezetbe kerül, nagyrészt a denitrifikáció és a nitifikáció által termelt N2O emissziója miatt. Itt tehát az is befolyásoló tényező lehet, hogy a tápanyag utánpótlás direkt a termesztett haszonnövénynél, vagy a sorközökben is történik.

Carbon dioxide fluxes of soils have been measured at nine case study sites. At five sites alley cropping showed systematic increase in the CO2 emission. At three sites no systematic change was observed. The increase compared to bare, monocrop soils is evident due to the root respiration of the plants there. The plant uses energy for keeping physiological processes from a part of the photosynthetized carbohydrates, and one of the end product (CO2) of this process are emitted by autotrophic respiration. This is the main mechanism of soil C emission beside the decomposition of soil organics called by heterotrophic respiration. On the other hand the intercropped plants take in carbon dioxide from the air through photosynthesis. Only a part of the fixed carbon is emitted by root exhalation and a significant amount is stored in the above and below ground parts of the plants. In this way the intercropped plants are net carbon sinks. Another positive effect of intercropping can be the increase of soil organic C content of non-intensively cultivated, no-till soils or natural fields. Carbon sequestration potential of European arable lands can be up to 0.7 t C/ha yr, while that of natural grass is higher by one order of magnitude. In contrast, for intensively cultivated soils carbon (organic matter) loss is generally observed. The advantage of diversification can therefore be shown on the one hand in the net carbon uptake of the vegetation, and on the other in the carbon sequestration of the soil. Another advantage is that intercropped plants can be used as fodder or food.

A CS1-től CS12-ig tartó esettanulmányokban öt helyen nő a szén-dioxid kibocsátás diverzifikáció esetén, egy helyen csökken, háromnál pedig nincs szignifikáns változás. Ez várható volt, mivel a növény a saját maga által termelt energiája egy részét felhasználja és az elégetett szénhidrátból származó szén-dioxid egy része gyökérlégzéssel távozik. Ez a talaj CO2 kibocsátásának fő mechanizmusa a szerves anyagok mikrobiológiai bomlása mellett. Teljesen nyilvánvaló, hogy ahol növény van, ott növényi gyökérlégzés is, azaz a csupasz talaj CO2 kibocsátása kisebb. Egy null a csupasz talaj javára, ha csak az emissziót nézzük. Azt viszont tudjuk, hogy ahol növény van, ott fotoszintézis is van, tehát a növény a megkötött CO2-nek csak egy részét bocsátja vissza a légkörbe, a másik része a föld feletti és föld alatti növényrészekben raktározódik. Ilyen módon a sorközökbe ültetett növény nettó szénmegkötő. A nettó szénmérleg tehát pozitív szénmegkötésben realizálódik, ahogy a mellékelt 1. ábra is mutatja. Ráadásul a szántás nélkül művelt talajoknál (no till) és a természetes gyepeknél a talaj széntartalma növekedhet, ellentétben a belterjesen művelt talajokkal, ahol szénveszteség lép fel. A diverzifikáció haszna tehát egyrészt a növényzet szénmegkötésében, másrészt a talaj széntartalmának növekedésében mutatkozhat meg. Emellett a sorközökbe ültetett növényeket fel lehet használni takarmányként, vagy élelmezési célokra.

The case study (CS4) conducted in Spain was carried out with the implementation of three crop diversifications in olive groves, which were Saffron, Oats and Vetch rotation and Lavandin. As a control area, rainfed olive monoculture was established. The use of diversified cropping systems in the olive grove alleys during the study period showed influence which was also linked to the climatic conditions of this Mediterranean area. With respect to oil quality, it could be evaluated from parameters such as the degree of acidity, soluble solids and fat content. During the first two years after the implementation of the diversifications, no significant differences were observed with respect to these parameters between treatments and diversifications, remaining within the adequate levels for obtaining olive oil. However, in the third year, variations were observed with respect to the percentage of juice. In this parameter, a decrease was detected in all the study plots between 2020 and 2021, although the largest decrease was obtained in the olive monoculture. This decrease in olive productivity may be due to a greater amount of olives harvested, which allows these values to be lower as there is more fruit. Therefore, after analyzing the results obtained throughout the study period, we can observe that the implementation of diversifications and the change in management have not had any influence on the quality of the olive oil, i.e., extra virgin quality oil has continued to be obtained. However, the percentage of juice has varied, but due to external factors such as rainfall and temperatures.

El estudio de caso (CS4) realizado en España se ha llevado a cabo con la implantación de tres diversificaciones de cultivo en olivar que fueron Azafrán, rotación de Avena y Veza y Lavandín. Como zona de control se estableció el monocultivo de olivar de secano. El uso de sistemas de cultivo diversificados en los callejones del olivar durante el periodo de estudio mostró influencia la cual también estaba ligada a las condiciones climáticas de esta zona mediterránea. Con respecto a calidad del aceite, se pudo evaluar a partir de parámetros como el grado de acidez, los sólidos solubles y el contenido en materia grasa. Durante los dos primeros años desde la implantación de las diversificaciones, no se observaron diferencias significativas con respecto a estos parámetros entre tratamientos y diversificaciones manteniéndose dentro de los niveles adecuados para la obtención de aceite de oliva. Sin embargo, en el tercer año, se observó que se producían variaciones con respecto al porcentaje de zumo. En este parámetro se detectó un descenso en todas las parcelas de estudio entre 2020 y 2021 aunque el mayor descenso se ha obtenido en el monocultivo de olivo. Este descenso en la productividad del olivo puede deberse a una mayor cantidad de aceituna recolectada, lo que permite que estos valores sean menores al haber más fruto. Por tanto, tras el análisis de los resultados obtenidos a lo largo del periodo de estudio, podemos observar que la implantación de las diversificaciones y el cambio de manejo, no han tenido influencia en la calidad del aceite de oliva, es decir, se ha seguido obteniendo un aceite de calidad virgen extra. Sin embargo, si que se ha visto variado el porcentaje en zumo, pero por factores externos como son las precipitaciones y las temperaturas.

The DIVERFARMING project, for Italian case studies, sought to identify the costs and benefits associated with the introduction of new crops or new cultivation systems in highly specialized production contexts.

The idea was to bring farms back to restore longer crop rotations, beneficial for the soil, and to use more organic material as a soil improver. To succeed in this we have chosen to start a "negotiation" process that has allowed us to select the most suitable practices for the pedoclimatic and structural context of the farms in the area, and, at the same time, to interact with the processing companies to design new collaboration systems along the supply chain.

The result was a contractual agreement that looks at the cultivation system as a whole and which allows farms to improve their profitability per hectare and processing companies to rely on more trained farmers who are able to respond to future requests for sustainability. Key elements of the contract concern specific technical support for the introduction of new crops and for the obtaining of subsidies from rural development policies and a system of reward incentives for the quality of products and specific insurance policies for management. risk

"Il progetto DIVERFARMING, per i casi di studio italiani, ha cercato di individuare i costi e i benefici legati all’introduzione di nuove colture o nuovi sistemi di coltivazione in contesti di produzione altamente specializzati.

L’idea era riportare le aziende agricole a ripristinare rotazioni colturali più lunghe, benefiche per il suolo, e ad utilizzare più materiale organico come ammendante. Per riuscire in questo abbiamo scelto di avviare un percorso “negoziale” che ci ha permesso di selezionare le pratiche più idonee al contesto pedoclimatico e strutturale delle aziende agricole dell’areale, e, allo stesso tempo, di confrontarci con le aziende di trasformazione per ideare nuovi sistemi di collaborazione lungo la filiera.

Il risultato è stato un accordo contrattuale che guarda al sistema colturale nel suo insieme e che permette alle aziende agricole di migliorare la loro redditività ad ettaro e alle aziende di trasformazione di contare su agricoltori più formati e capaci di rispondere alle future richieste di sostenibilità. Elementi chiave del contratto riguardano il supporto tecnico specifico per l’introduzione di nuove colture e per l’ottenimento di sussidi da parte delle politiche di sviluppo rurali e di un sistema di incentivi premiali per la qualità dei prodotti e di polizze assicurative specifiche per la gestione del rischio. "

The challenge undertaken with the DIVERFARMING project was to demonstrate that with the introduction of crop diversification practices it is possible to obtain quality food while protecting the soil and its fertility, reducing the risk of water pollution and at the same time increasing resilience. of agricultural systems and agri-food chains with respect to the impacts of climate change and market crises of technical means and agricultural raw materials.

Research activities in the economic field have quantified the value associated with the introduction of new agricultural practices in case studies in different parts of Europe. It has been shown that there is an economic plus-value of diversification, partly linked to the sale of "new" products (for farms often "old acquaintances" revisited in a modern key that have disappeared from the logic of specialized production) and partly motivated by the availability to pay consumers for food that comes from production systems that improve the availability of ecosystem services (biodiversity, water quality, landscape).

This shows that to diversify in the field, it is necessary to think differently, not only farmers and agri-food industries, who must open up to experimentation with new products, but also consumers who must better balance their requests, favoring the spread of more sustainable production systems. increasing the diversity of their diets.

La sfida intrapresa con il progetto DIVERFARMING è stata quella di dimostrare che con l’introduzione di pratiche di diversificazione colturale è possibile ottenere cibo di qualità tutelando il suolo e la sua fertilità, riducendo il rischio di inquinare le acque e allo stesso tempo aumentando la resilienza di sistemi agricoli e filiere agroalimentari rispetto agli impatti dei cambiamenti climatici e delle crisi dei mercati di mezzi tecnici e materie prime agricole.

Le attività di ricerca in ambito economico hanno quantificato il valore connesso all’introduzione delle nuove pratiche agricole nei casi studio in diverse parti di Europa. Si è dimostrato che esiste un plus-valore economico della diversificazione, in parte legato alla vendita di prodotti “nuovi” (per le aziende agricole spesso “vecchie conoscenze” rivisitate in chiave moderna scomparsi dalle logiche della produzione specializzata) e in parte motivato dalla disponibilità a pagare dei consumatori per cibo che proviene da sistemi produttivi che migliorano la disponibilità dei servizi ecosistemici (biodiversità, qualità delle acque, paesaggio).

Questo come a dimostrare che per diversificare in campo serve pensare diversamente, non solo agricoltori e industrie agroalimentari, che devono aprirsi alla sperimentazione di nuovi prodotti, ma anche i consumatori che devono bilanciare meglio le loro richieste, favorendo la diffusione di sistemi di produzione più sostenibili aumentando la diversità delle loro diete.

Soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration is a crucial soil function for ecosystem services, and storing carbon (C) in soil by changing traditional management practices can represent an important step toward the development of more sustainable agricultural systems. Within the project Diverfarming we gained new insights into the potential of intercropping and sustainable agricultural practices to increase soil organic carbon in different pedo-climatic regions of Europe. Through the aid of mathematical modelling we analysed the impact of diversifications in Boreal regions, Finland, where different proportions of legumes and grass were considered in a 4-year crop rotation compared with conventional cereal rotations. Experiments and modeling showed that the usual loss of SOC in conventional cereal (0.4% less per year) is compensated when grass is introduced in the rotations. According to our results, the decreasing trend of soil organic carbon in traditional cereals can be avoided by introducing grasses or leguminous crops in conventional cereals rotations, and by adding organic amendements. The model suggested that intense cultivations without any organic

amendments in the cereal rotations lead to increased respiration

and consequently decreased SOC. An further benefit observed in rotations with leguminous crops is associated with the fixation of the atmospheric N so that the use of inorganic fertilizer can be reduced.

Il sequestro del carbonio organico (SOC) è una funzione cruciale del suolo per i servizi ecosistemici. Lo stoccaggio del carbonio (C) nel suolo ottenuto modificando le tradizionali pratiche di gestione possono rappresentare un passo importante verso lo sviluppo di sistemi agricoli più sostenibili. Nell'ambito del progetto Diverfarming abbiamo acquisito nuove conoscenze sul potenziale della coltura consociata o promiscua e delle pratiche agricole sostenibili per aumentare il carbonio organico del suolo in diverse regioni pedoclimatiche d'Europa. Attraverso l'ausilio di modelli matematici abbiamo analizzato l'impatto delle diversificazioni nelle regioni boreali, in Finlandia, dove sono state considerate diverse proporzioni di legumi ed erba in una rotazione colturale di 4 anni rispetto alle rotazioni cerealicole convenzionali. Esperimenti e modelli hanno mostrato che la normale perdita di carbonio nei cereali convenzionali (0,4% in meno all'anno) viene compensata quando l'erba viene introdotta nelle rotazioni. Secondo i nostri risultati, l'andamento decrescente del carbonio organico nel suolo nei cereali tradizionali può essere evitato introducendo graminacee o leguminose nelle rotazioni e aggiungendo composti organici. Il modello suggerisce che coltivazioni intense di rotazione dei cereali senza alcuna aggiunta di composti organici portano ad un aumento della respirazione e di conseguenza a una diminuzione di SOC. Un ulteriore beneficio osservato nelle rotazioni con le leguminose è associato alla fissazione dell'azoto atmosferico, che comporta la possibilita' di ridurre l'uso di fertilizzanti inorganici.

Sustainable agriculture can be a key strategy to end poverty and hunger and address climate change while maintaining natural resources intact. Soil organic carbon is considered an important indicator of soil quality and agronomic sustainability due to its impact on other physical, chemical, and biological soil properties, and to increase its sequestration is one of the goals necessary to obtain a healthier ecosystem. Within the project Diverfarming we assessed the use of intercropping and low input practices on carbon dynamics, and with the support of mathematical modelling we analysed alternative managements and identified best practice. In our case study in Murcia we compared the long-term effect of multiple cropping and rotations on SOC dynamics with conventional, organic and biodynamic management, while in Huesca we analysed the impact of tillage management on a barley rainfed cropping system. The model showed that in contrast to traditional manure, composted manure and application of green manure contribute to a significant increase of SOC in dry ecosystems. Our results also demonstrated that it is possible to increase SOC stock by adopting diversified management practices including no tillage, diverse cropping systems, and exogenous organic input. Practising integrated managements, in which multiple diversified practices are introduced, could contribute to mitigate nearly 14% of the total GHG emissions occurring in Spain.

La agricultura sostenible puede ser una estrategia clave para acabar con la pobreza y el hambre y abordar el cambio climático mientras se mantienen intactos los recursos naturales. El carbono orgánico del suelo se considera un indicador importante de la calidad del suelo y la sostenibilidad agronómica debido a su impacto en otras propiedades físicas, químicas y biológicas del suelo, y aumentar su secuestro es una de las metas necesarias para obtener un ecosistema más saludable. Dentro del proyecto Diverfarming, evaluamos el uso de cultivos intercalados y prácticas de bajos insumos en la dinámica del carbono y, con el apoyo de modelos matemáticos, analizamos gestiones alternativas e identificamos las mejores prácticas. En nuestro estudio de caso en Murcia, comparamos el efecto a largo plazo de cultivos múltiples y rotaciones en la dinámica del COS con manejo convencional, orgánico y biodinámico, mientras que en Huesca analizamos el impacto del manejo de labranza en un sistema de cultivo de cebada de secano. El modelo mostró que, a diferencia del estiércol tradicional, el estiércol compostado y la aplicación de abono verde contribuyen a un aumento significativo del COS en los ecosistemas secos. Nuestros resultados también demostraron que es posible aumentar las existencias de COS mediante la adopción de prácticas de manejo diversificadas que incluyen labranza cero, sistemas de cultivo diversos e insumos orgánicos exógenos. La práctica de gestiones integradas, en las que se introducen múltiples prácticas diversificadas, puede contribuir a mitigar cerca del 14% del total de emisiones de GEI que se producen en España.

The sequestration of soil organic carbon (SOC) is of key importance for soil function and for all those benefits to humans that are provided by the natural environment and a healthy ecosystem. It is possible to change how much carbon is stored in soil by changing traditional management practices, which represents an important step toward the development of more sustainable agricultural systems. Within the European project Diverfarming, we have used a modelling approach to assess the impact of crop diversification and agricultural management on the SOC dynamics. We analysed the impact of tillage and rotation on the soil properties of our Italian case study in the semiarid region of Foggia, where a rotation with tick bean, used as cover crop, was added to monocropping wheat under conventional and no tillage. In agreement with the experiments, the model showed that either the use of no tillage or the introduction of tick bean led to a great increase in sequestrated SOC. From our study, it is clear that the adoption of no tillage practices is an important diversified management in Foggia. In fact, compared to intense cultivations this practice promotes the accumulation of SOC in the topsoil. However, we observed that the rotation with tick bean has an even higher impact on SOC compared to different tillage management practices, which we assumed it is due to N fixation by the tick beans and the increased amount of C input provided by the tick beans when incorporated in the soil as green manure.

Il sequestro del carbonio organico del suolo (SOC) è di fondamentale importanza per le funzioni del suolo e per tutti quei benefici forniti all'uomo dall'ambiente naturale e da un ecosistema sano. È possibile modificare la quantità di carbonio immagazzinata nel suolo modificando le pratiche di tradizionali di management, il che rappresenta un passo importante verso lo sviluppo di sistemi agricoli più sostenibili. Nell'ambito del progetto europeo Diverfarming, abbiamo utilizzato un approccio di modellizzazione per valutare l'impatto della diversificazione delle colture e della gestione agricola sulle dinamiche del carbonio. Nel nostro caso studio nella regione semiarida di Foggia, abbiamo analizzato l'impatto della lavorazione del terreno e della rotazione sulle proprietà del suolo, quando una rotazione con favino, utilizzata come coltura di copertura, è aggiunta al grano monocolturale in regime di coltivazione convenzionale e non. In accordo con gli esperimenti, il modello ha mostrato che l'uso di non lavorazione del terreno o l'introduzione del favino aumenta la quantita' di carbonio sequestrato. Dal nostro studio emerge chiaramente che l'adozione di pratiche di non lavorazione del terreno rappresenta un'importante gestione diversificata a Foggia. Questa pratica, infatti, rispetto alle coltivazioni intense favorisce l'accumulo di SOC nel terriccio. Tuttavia, abbiamo anche osservato che la rotazione con il favino ha un impatto ancora maggiore sul SOC rispetto alle diverse pratiche di gestione della lavorazione del terreno, la qual cosa si crede sia dovuta alla fissazione di N da parte del favino e alla maggiore quantità di input di C fornita dal favino quando incorporato nel terreno come sovescio.

The micrometeorological measurements within the Horizon 2020 project of the European Union called Diverfarming (728003) started in a vineyard of the Gere Attila Winery in Villány in spring 2018. The project led by the Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, University of Pécs, was aimed to propose a measurement insfrastructure for an agroecological model which serves low-input land cultivation with low environmental impact. The model involves improvement in the productivity and carbon sequestration capacity of the soil, reduces mineral fertilizer and pesticide needs, grape quality and the energy and water requirements of the soil-plant system. The case study site in Villány is equipped with a meteorological station extended by new devices distributed by Campbell Scientific to serve agronomic, soil, erosion, hydrometeorological and greenhouse gas monitoring. Potential evapotranspiration and various viticultural indices are employed. For the computation of reference evaporation temperature, relative humidity, wind velocity, cloud cover and global irradiation data are needed in hourly and daily resolution. Monthly ET0 values are calculated from i) the upscaling of daily data and ii) based on the classical Thornthwaite procedure. Daily and monthly ET data were also produced for the 1960-2010 period from the CarpatClim database. The uncertainty of data obtained from different databases and calculation methods was estimated. The new station provides information for farmers to establish long-term planning strategies which better observe microclimatic influences. Based on microclimatic variations diversification options for the cropping system can also be reliably elaborated.

A Horizon 2020 Diverfarming (728003) EU2020 Európai Uniós program keretében 2018 tavaszán indultak a mikrometeorológiai mérések a Pécsi Tudományegyetem Földrajzi és Földtudományi Intézet vezetésével Villányban, Gere Attila szőlőbirtokán. A projekt célja a mezőgazdaság számára korszerű, kis környezeti terheléssel járó talajművelési módszerek ajánlása; olyan új agroökológiai modell és mérőrendszer fejlesztése, amely alapján javítható a talaj termő- és szénmegkötő képessége, a szőlőtermés minősége, valamint csökkenthető a műtrágya és növényvédő szerek használata, a talaj-növény rendszer energia- és vízszükséglete. Bemutatjuk a villányi mérőhelyet, az ott folyó komplex mérési programot (agronómiai, talaj, erózió, hidrológia, meteorológia, üvegház-gázok). Kitérünk az új, Campbell Scientific cég által forgalmazott műszerekkel felszerelt, bővített mérési programú szőlészeti meteorológiai állomás kialakítására (mérési célok, szenzorok, adatforgalom). Thornthwaite-féle potenciális párolgást (PET) és különböző szőlészeti indexeket állítottunk elő. A referencia párolgás kiszámításához hőmérséklet, relatív nedvesség, szélsebesség és felhőzet, illetve globálsugárzás adatok kellenek. A számításokat órás és napi léptékben is elvégeztük. Havi ET0 értékeket is számoltunk i) a napi adatok felskálázásával, illetve ii) a klasszikus Thornthwaite-féle módszertan alapján. Kiszámítottuk a napi és a havi ET adatokat a CarpatClim adatbázis alapján is 1960-2010 közötti időszakra. Foglalkozunk a különböző adatbázisokból és számítási módszerekből származó bizonytalanságok számszerűsítésével is. A szőlőre jellemző növény-konstansok alkalmazásával a párolgásra következtethetünk. Az új állomás programja már ilyen információt is szolgáltat a gazdálkodónak, ami hozzájárul a hosszútávú tervezési stratégiák kialakításához, a mikroklíma hatások jobb figyelembevételéhez, ami a termelés diverzifikálását is szolgálja.

Based on an outlook of role of the meteorology in the curricula of the neighbouring countries of Hungary with an emphasis on the high school teaching/learning methods related to long climatic series. Analyzing monthly time series for temperature (T) precipitation (P), potential evapotranspiration calculated by the Thornthwaite method (PET) and potential water deficit (PET-P) with secondary schoolchildren at classes and special workshops, their awareness of climate change could be assessed. As examples the climate databases for Pécs, Kecskemét and Rimavská Sobota (Slovakia) (1871-2100) were studied. Four data sources were utilized: i) historical data series (1871-1918), ii) CRU climatic database (1900-2010), CarpatClim grid data base (1960-2010), a bias-corrected database based on measurements and the Foresee regional climate model (1950-2100). Water deficit is vital in the Diverfarming EU Horizon 2020 project (No. 728003) which aims at promoting sustainable farming. In the asparagus field located on the Danube-Tisza Interfluve, on wind-blown sand soil, increasing water deficit is prognosticated. From the climate data series of the selected stations well reflect the climatic variations within the Carpathian Basin. In the continuation of the project the participants could get acquainted with the investigation of climate extremes. At the same time, they learn about the climatological aspects of crop diversification. They are confronted with a novel thinking, a new attitude to farming which, as opposed to monocropping, encourages crop diversification, i.e. the cultivation of several crops in the same field with the purpose of reducing the damage caused by extreme weather events in the future.

A környezeti problémák növekvő fontossága és a fenntartható fejlődés iránti erősödő igény felértékelte a meteorológiai/éghajlati ismereteket. A meteorológiai ismeretek különböző értelmezése szükségesé tette, hogy interediszciplináris megközelítésben tanulmányozzák ezt a kérdést. A magyar Nemzeti Alaptanterv (NAT) nagyobb súllyal tartalmazza ezeket a témákat a különböző tantárgyak tanterveiben. A Magyarországgal szomszédos országok tanterveinek áttekintésével bemutatjuk, hogyan szerepelnek a hosszú távú klímaidősorok a különböző tartervekben. A hőmérséklet (T) a csapadék (P), a Thornthwite-féle potenciális párolgás (PET), illetve a potenciális vízhiány (PET-P) havi idősorait elemezzük középiskolás hallgatókkal tanórán, illetve szakköri foglalkozásokon, hogy felmérjük, mennyire tudatosul bennük az éghajlatváltozás. Példaként a pécsi, a kecskeméti és a szlovákiai Rimaszombatra előállított éghajlati adatbázist (1871-2100) mutatjuk be, s néhány példával szemléltetjük annak oktatási alkalmazását. Célunk az éghajlatváltozás számszerűsítése, a rá adott válaszok megfogalmazása. Négy adatforrásra támaszkodtunk: i) történeti adatsorok (1871-1918), ii) CRU éghajlati adatbázis 1900-2010), CarpatClim rácsponti adatbázis (1960-2010), Foresee mérési illetve regionális éghajlati modellszámítások alapján készített bias-corrected adatbázis (1950-2100). A vízhiány központi helyet foglal el a fenntartható mezőgazdasággal foglalkozó Diverfarming EU 2020 (No. 728003) projektben. A Duna-Tisza közén, futóhomok talajon elhelyezkedő spárgaültetvényben, ahol csepegtető öntözést alkalmaznak, a jövőben fokozódó vízhiány prognosztizálható. Fontosnak tartjuk a diverzifikált termesztési rendszer fogalmának és éghajlati kapcsolatainak megismertetését. Olyan gondolkodásmód meghonosítását a gazdálkodásban, amely szemben a monokultúrával többféle termék, növény előállítását szorgalmazza egy adott földterületen ezzel is csökkentve a jövőben növekvő számú szélsőséges időjárási események károkozását.

The growing importance of the environmental issues and the prominence of the problem of sustainable development valorised the meteorological and climatological knowledge. The diversity of the interpretation of the meteorological knowledge predestines, that it has become part of interdisciplinary projects. The Hungarian NAT (National Curriculum) enhanced the weight of these topics in curricula of various subjects. Based on an outlook of role of the meteorology in the curricula of the neighbouring countries of Hungary with an emphasis on the high school teaching/learning methods related to long climatic series. Analyzing monthly time series for temperature (T) precipitation (P), potential evapotranspiration calculated by the Thornthwaite method (PET) and potential water deficit (PET-P) with secondary schoolchildren at classes and special workshops, their awareness of climate change could be assessed. As examples the climate databases for Pécs, Kecskemét and Rimavská Sobota (Slovakia) (1871-2100) were studied. A comparative study of measurements and interpolated grid data for climate was accomplished. In the analysis of monthly temperature and precipitation four data sources were utilized: i) historical data series (1871-1918), ii) CRU climatic database (1900-2010), CarpatClim grid data base (1960-2010), a bias-corrected database based on measurements and the Foresee regional climate model (1950-2100). The data were processed into excel tables by meteorologists for the students. Potential evapotranspiration was calculated by the Thorntwaite method and the annual course of potential water deficit was established. A clearly increasing trend was visible. This parameter is vital in the Diverfarming EU Horizon 2020 project (No. 728003) which aims at promoting sustainable farming. In the asparagus field located on the Danube-Tisza Interfluve, on wind-blown sand soil, increasing water deficit is prognosticated. From the climate data series of the selected stations well reflect the climatic variations within the Carpathian Basin. The excersize was useful for the schoolchildren who could assess the climatic elements used for the characterization of atmospheric conditions, past and present methodology of climate observations. In the continuation of the project the participants could get acquainted with the investigation of climate extremes. At the same time, they learn about the climatological aspects of crop diversification. They are confronted with a novel thinking, a new attitude to farming which, as opposed to monocropping, encourages crop diversification, i.e. the cultivation of several crops in the same field with the purpose of reducing the damage caused by extreme weather events in the future.

A futóhomokkal fedett kiskunsági hordalékkúp talaja Humic Arenosol. A mezőgazdasági művelés számára rendkívül kedvezőtlen környezeti tulajdonságokkal rendelkezik: szegény szervesanyagban, alacsony szintű az aggregátumok képződése, kicsi az agyagtartalma, de elsősorban a minimális szintű talajnedvesség és vízmegtartó képesség korlátozza a termékenységét. A gyakori kiszáradás miatt nagymértékben ki vannak téve a széleróziónak. A homokviharok rendszeresen nagy mennyiségű, kis sűrűségű szerves részecskét (nagyrészt humuszanyagot) hordanak el. A kutatási terület talajszelvénye eltemetett humuszhorizontokat mutat, amelyek a történelmi időkben kedvezőbb fizikai féleségű talajok képződésére, ill. a szél hatására történő intenzív homokmozgásra utalnak. Az eltemetett humuszszintek teszik egyáltalán lehetővé a művelést. A régióban termeszthető növények választéka erősen korlátozott. A kísérlethez ezért egy spárgaföldet választottunk ki. A spárgasorok az uralkodó szél irányához igazodnak, azzal párhuzamosak. A bakhátak műanyag fóliatakarója szélcsatorna-hatással fokozza a széleróziót. Két különböző növénykultúra-diverzifikációt vezettünk be az ökoszisztéma-szolgáltatások színvonalának emelésére, különös tekintettel a szélerózió elleni védekezésre: a spárga monokultúra (M, kontroll) parcellák váltakoznak diverzifikált parcellákkal, a spárgabakhátak között takarmányborsó (D1) és zab (D2) köztes vetésével. Az üledékcsapdákkal felfogott szél által szállított hordalék mennyiségét 1 méter magas és 100 méter széles keresztmetszetben, négy magasságban mértük: közvetlenül a talaj felszínén, 30 cm, 200 cm és 400 cm magasságban. A meteorológiai megfigyelések adatsorát a szélcsatorna kísérletekből becsült homokmozgás kezdősebességei szerint értékeltük. A zab mint köztes vetés nagyobb felszínérdességet okoz, jobb talajfedésével valamivel jobban véd a szélerózió ellen, mint a takarmányborsó. A kiporzás és a humuszveszteség is kisebb zab köztes vetés esetén. Ezt azonban kompenzálhatja a borsó mint hüvelyes növény nitrogénmegkötő képessége. Végső soron tehát mindkét takarónövénynek helye van a diverzifikáció tervezésében.

The results of the surveys carried out in Diverfarming showed that the main barriers to the implementation of crop diversification practices mainly concern the lack or scarcity of varieties of the so-called "minor" crops, as well as the relative transition costs that follow and that, for these “minor” supply chains are often higher. Furthermore, in many cases the environmental and economic benefits do not have an immediate response, but manifest themselves in the medium-long term.

The policy indications for overcoming these barriers concern, as a priority, the financing of consultancy or extension services operating at a territorial level, which can advise farmers on the type of crop diversification to adopt and support them with technical and agronomic advices, especially during the early stages. In addition, it is increasingly important to raise awareness among farmers about their active role in protecting the environment. The object of the policies should move from the product to the entire supply chain and to the territory, designing policies that promote cooperative and collective approaches and finally promoting and disseminating good practices. Finally, the instruments relating to the financing of research and technological development remain valid and transversal, with the aim of finding new technologies and machinery useful for this type of farm management, and the facilitation of access to credit and insurance.

I risultati delle indagini effettuate in Diverfarming hanno mostrato che le principali barriere all’implementazione di pratiche di diversificazione colturale riguardano soprattutto la mancanza o la scarsità di varietà delle cosidette colture “minori”, nonchè i relativi costi di transizione che ne conseguono e che, per queste filiere “minori”, spesso risultano più elevati. Inoltre, in molti i casi benefici ambientali ed economici non hanno un riscontro immediato, ma si manifestano nel medio-lungo periodo.

Le indicazioni di policy per il superamento di tali barriere riguardano in via prioritaria il finanziamento di centri di consulenza operanti a livello territoriale, che possono consigliare gli agricoltori sul tipo di diversificazione colturale da adottare e supportarli con consulenze tecniche e agronomiche soprattutto durante le prime fasi. Inoltre, è sempre più importante sensibilizzare gli agricoltori sul loro ruolo attivo rispetto alla tutela dell’ambiente. L’oggetto delle politiche dovrebbe spostarsi dal prodotto all’intera filiera e al territorio, progettando politiche che promuovano approcci cooperativi e collettivi ed infine promuovendo e diffondendo le buone pratiche. Infine, restano validi e trasversali gli strumenti relativi ai finanziamenti della ricerca e dello sviluppo tecnologico, con l'obiettivo di trovare nuove tecnologie e macchinari utili per questo tipo di gestione aziendale, e la facilitazione per l'accesso al credito e alle assicurazioni.

Long-term organic farming can reduce the use of synthetic fertilizer and pesticide, and in addition, improve soil quality. Microorganisms play an important role on soil quality due to their participation in biogeochemical soil cycles, so they can increase nutrient availability, enhance the use of water and increase crop yield. In this assay, two organic systems were compared (one with manure and the other with compost and compost tea) with the conventional one to study the effects of sustainable managment on soil microbial community and the results showed that sustainable agriculture changed the microbial community structure, futhermore, the addition of compost and compost tea increased the carbon and nutrient content on soils. Key microorganisms were also affected by cropping system. The conventional system promoted the growth of microorganisms linked with pesticide and herbicide degradation such as Nesterenkonia, Galbibacter, Gramella, Limnobacter, Pseudoalteromonas, Pantoe, and Sporobolomyces whereas the sustainable ones promoted the growth of key microorganisms related with organic matter decomposition such as Turicibacter or microorganims capable of reduce soil borne pathogens such as Wallemia. All these changes on soil microbial communities and soil nutrient could have contributed to yield, because of no differences were found between conventional cropping system and both organics systems.

La agricultura organica a largo plazo puede reducir el uso de fertilizantes y pesticidas y, además, mejorar la calidad del suelo. Los microorganismos juegan un papel crual en la calidad del suelo debido a su papel en los ciclos biogeoquímicos, de modo que ellos podrían incrementar la disponibilidad de nutrientes, mejorar el uso del agua e incrementar la producción. En este ensayo se compararon dos sistemas orgánicos (uno con estiércol y otro con compost y té de compost) con uno convencional para estudiar los efectos del manejo en las comunidades microbianas y los resultados mostraron como la agricultura sostenible cambió las comunidades microbianas, además, la adición de compost y té de compost aumentó el contenido de carbono y nutrientes en el suelo. Los microorganismos clave tambien se vieron afectados. El sistema convencional promovió el crecimiento de microorganismos relacionados con la degradación de pesticidas y herbicidas, como Nesterenkonia, Galbibacter, Gramella, Limnobacter, Pseudoalteromonas, Pantoe y Sporobolomyces mientras que en los sistemas orgánicos crecieron microorgansimos relacionados con la degradación de materia orgánica, como Turicibacter o microorganismos capaces de reducir los patógenos transmitidos por el suelo como Wallemia. Todos estos cambios en las comunidades microbianas del suelo y nutrientes pudo haber contribuido a la producción, debido a que no se encontraron diferencias significativas entre el manejo convencional y los manejos orgánicos.

Long-term cropping system can change the microbial communities estructure and composition, however, how cropping system affects to microbial relationships and functionality in poorly studied despiste its importance, since this relationship describe behavours such as mutualism, competence, etc. Two sustainable long-term cropping systems (one of them with manure (Org_M) and the other with compost and compost tea(Org_C)) were studied againts a conventional (Conv) system (with fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides) with the aim to evaluate the effects on management on microbial relationship through co-ocurrence networks. The results revealed how the relationships were highly affected by cropping management increasing their complexity, modularity and connexions when compost was added, futhermore, the connexions changed, showing the sustainable Org_C management the higher number of negative connexions, higher stability increasing the response of the microbial community to adverse conditions. In addition, the study of functionality revealed how the addition of compost could favor the uptake of environmental CO2, decrease de N2O emissions and favor the nitrogen-fixation, since prolonged application can reduce the use of fertilizers and pesticides and could create a more stable soil, which could resist the effects of climate change.

Un sistema de cultivo a largo plazo puede cambiar la estructura y la composición de las comunidades microbianas, sin embargo, como un sistema agrario afecta a las relaciones microbianas y a su funcionalidad está pobremente estudiado a pesar de su importancia, ya que esta relación describe compostamientos como mutualismo, competencia, etc. Dos sistemas agrarios sostenibles a largo plazo (uno con estiércol (Org_M) y otro con compost y té de compost (Org_C)) se estudiaron contra el sistema convencional (Conv) (con fertilizantes, pesticidas y herbicidas) con el objetivo de evaluar los efectos del manejo en las relacoines microbianas a través de redes de co-ocurrencia. Los resultados revelaron como las relaciones se vieron altamente afectadas por el manejo agrario, aumentando su complejidad, modularidad y sus conexiones cuando se aplicó compost, además, las conexiones cambiaron, mostrando en el Org_C un mayor número de conexiones negativas, una mayor estabilidad e incrementando la respuesta de las comunidades bacterianas a las condiciones adversas. Además, el estudio de la funcionalidad reveló como la adición de compost pudo favorecer la absorción de C02 ambiental, reducir las emisiones de N2O y favorecer la fijación de nitrógeno, por lo que una aplicación prolongada puede reducir el uso de fertilizantes y pesticidas y podría crear un suelo más estable, el cual podría resistir los efectos del cambio climático.

Monocropping depletes soil nutrients, for that, it is neccesary to add more fertilizers each time with the aim to maintain the crop yield, however, this system is not sustainable and pollutes soil and water. Intercropping can be a good solution to this issue due to its capability to improve soil quality, reduce the use of fertilizers, improve water use and maintain, or even, increase crop yield. In this sense, legumes can be great alternative because of their nitrogen-fixation capacity. In this assay, a melon and cowpea monocrop were compared with three intercropping system of melon:cowpea with different patterns: mixed intercropping, row 1:1 melon:cowpea and row 2:1 melon:cowpea with the aim to study the effects of intercropping system on bacterial community and increased soil properties and crop yield. The results of this assay revealed how intercropping improved melon yield and changed the microbial communities and soil properties. The intercropping system had higher content of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorous on soils than monocropping system and these changes were probably due to bacterial community, since intercropping system promoted the growth of beneficial microorganisms such as Pseudomonas, Bacillus, a phosphorus-solubizing bacteria or Spinghomonas that can promote plant-growth.

El monocultivo agota los nutrientes del suelo, por lo que cada vez es necesario incorporar más fertilizantes para poder mantener la producción, sin embargo, este sistema no es sostenible y acaba contaminando suelos y aguas. El intercropping puede ser una buena solución para este problema, debido a su capacidad de mejorar la calidad del suelo, reducir el uso de fertilizantes o mantener o incluso incrementar la producción. En este sentido las leguminosas pueden ser una gran alternativa debido a su capacidad de fijación de nitrógeno. En este ensayo, dos monocultivos de melón y caupí fueron comparados con tres asociaciones con distintas distrubiciones: mixta, fila 1:1 de melon y caupí y fila 2:1 de melón y caupí con el objetivo de estudiar los efectos de la asociación de cultivos en las comunidades bacterianas, propiedades del suelo y producción. Los resultados de este ensayo revelaron como la asociación mejoró la producción, cambió las comunidades bacterianas y las propiedades del suelo. La asociación tuvo una mayor cantidad de carbono, nitrógeno y fósforo en los suelos que el sistema de monocultivo y estos cambios fueron posiblemente debido a las comunidades bacterianas, ya que la asociación de cultivos promovió el crecimiento de microorganismos beneficiosos como Pseudomonas, Bacillus, bacterias solubilizadoras de fósforo o Sphingomonas, que pueden promover el crecimiento de las plantas.

Intercropping is a practical application of the principle of increased productivity due to increased biodiversity. To characterize the land use efficiency of crop diversifications, the land equivalent ratio (LER) is calculated as the sum of the relative yields in the intercropping system divided by the single crop yields in the monoculture systems. Based on our results, the equivalent land ratio for almond diversified with winter thyme obtains an LER of approximately 2. An LER > 1 means that the intercropping system is advantageous as it produces more yields with the same land requirements. Therefore, LER is useful to assess the benefit of intercropping compared to monocultures, and LER turns out to be a good indicator of agroecosystem productivity and sustainability. The land equivalent ratio of almond trees intercropped with winter thyme was higher than that of their monoculture, indicating that intercropping with aromatics can improve the productivity of rainfed woody monoculture systems in semi-arid conditions.

El cultivo intercalado es una aplicación práctica del principio de aumento de la productividad debido a una mayor biodiversidad. Para caracterizar la eficiencia del uso de la tierra de las diversificaciones de cultivos, se calcula la relación equivalente de tierra (LER) como la suma de los rendimientos relativos en el sistema de cultivo intercalado dividida por los rendimientos de cultivo único en los sistemas de monocultivo. En base a nuestros resultados, la relación de tierra equivalente para la almendra diversificada con tomillo de invierno obtiene un LER aproximadamente de 2. Un LER > 1 significa que el sistema de cultivo intercalado resulta ventajoso ya que produce más rendimientos con los mismos requerimientos de tierra. Por lo tanto, LER es útil para evaluar el beneficio de los cultivos intercalados en comparación con los monocultivos, y LER resulta ser un buen indicador de la productividad y sostenibilidad del agroecosistema. La relación equivalente de tierra de los almendros intercalados con tomillo de invierno, fue más alta que la de su monocultivo, lo que indica que el intercultivo con aromáticas puede mejorar la productividad de los sistemas de monocultivo leñoso de secano en condiciones semiáridas.

An alternative in the rainfed lands is to diversify the almond agroecosystems with winter thyme to produce essential oils. Through steam distillation of fresh material from flowers, stems and leaves an average production of around 9 l/ha of essence was obtained. If we compare the productivity of thyme by diversifying dry almond trees versus a pure thyme monoculture, we obtain that intercropped thyme produces more yield. These oils are composed of 85 to 100 elements, with variations in response to the environment, and in our experience, starting from a phenolic chemotype with thymol ≤ 20% and high precursors (high contents of p-cymene and γ-terpinene) we obtain that thymol increases over time (exceeding 20%), becoming thymol chemotype. Undoubtedly, thymol is the most appreciated quality element for this thyme. Another important element is carvacrol, which fluctuates depending on specific episodes of precipitation or drought and reflects its high (22%) or low (5%) content depending on them. It is known that both phenolic monoterpenes (thymol and carvacrol) have shown antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, antiparasitic or antiviral properties, among others, which are of interest to numerous companies, and serve as a marketing channel for these essences. This quality of the oil enhances the obvious economic resource that its cultivation in these marginal areas supposes, in addition to other environmental benefits that these plants have shown.

Una alternativa en los terrenos de secano es diversificar los agroecosistemas de almendro con tomillo de invierno para producir aceites esenciales. A través de destilación por corriente de vapor de material fresco de flores, tallos y hojas se obtuvo una producción media en torno a 9 l/ha de esencia. Si comparamos la productividad de los tomillos diversificando almendros en secano frente a un monocultivo puro de tomillo obtenemos que los tomillos intercalados producen más rendimiento. Estos aceites están compuestos por 85 a 100 elementos, con variaciones como respuesta al ambiente, y en nuestra experiencia partiendo de un quimiotipo fenólico con timol ≤ 20% y precursores elevados (altos contenidos de p-cimeno y γ-terpineno) obtenemos que el timol aumenta con el tiempo (superando el 20%), pasando a ser de quimiotipo timol. Sin duda, el timol es el elemento de calidad más apreciado para este tomillo. Otro elemento importante es el carvacrol que oscila en función de episodios concretos de precipitación o sequía y refleja su contenido alto (22%) o bajo (5%) en función de los mismos. Es conocido que ambos monoterpenos fenólicos (timol y carvacrol) han demostrado propiedades antioxidantes, antibacterianas, antifúngicas, antiparasitarias o antivíricas, entre otras, que son del interés de numerosas empresas, y sirven de canal de comercialización de estas esencias. Esta calidad del aceite potencia el evidente recurso económico que supone su cultivo en estas zonas marginales, además de otros beneficios ambientales que han demostrado estas plantas.

Important soil erosion processes detected in woody crops systems take place in the alleys and in the ridges when passing the machinery for different agricultural labours.

Tillage can remove progressively the basis of the ridge, incorporating soil from the ridge to the alley, that is remobilized by successive erosive events. Furthermore tillage operations destabilize very often the structure of the ridge, changing its transversal profile and causing a tillage-bank erosion, particularly in combination with saturation of the soil due to the irrigation system. Sometimes this is not directly immediately perceived after tillage because the soil is very loose, but after several weeks or months, changes in the ridges and marks of erosive processes can be observed.

The effect of conventional tillage operations of an irrigated mandarin plantation in an alley-ridge system was compared with a less intensive tillage respecting the original morphology of the ridges. The results show that the introduction of minimum tillage practices with adapted machinery has the potential to reduce the erosion rate a 45 %. A combination of minimum tillage practices with adapted machinery and a diversified system with rotation in the alleys has the potential to reduce the erosion rate a 74%. The prototype of Industrias David, with easy adaptation of the height and width of the tiller, would facilitate the less intensive tillage, causing directly a decrease in the tillage-bank erosion process.

The use of better tillage practices using proper equipment that respects the morphology of ridges in alley-ridge systems, could decrease erosion rates considerably, even more if they are combined with diversification schemes.

Importantes procesos de erosión de suelo en las calles y caballones de cultivos leñosos tienen lugar debido a las operaciones de labranza. Ésta puede remover progresivamente la base de los caballones, incorporando sedimentos a las calles que podrán ser exportados en distintos eventos erosivos.

Además, las operaciones de labranza desestabilizan muy a menudo la estructura del caballón cambiando su perfil transversal y causando erosión lateral del mismo, especialmente en sistemas de regadío con suelo saturado. Muy a menudo esto no se percibe directamente inmediatamente después de la labranza porque el suelo está muy removido, pero después de varias semanas o meses, se pueden observar cambios en los caballones y morfologías erosivas.

El efecto de las operaciones de labranza convencional de una plantación de regadío de mandarino en un sistema de calle-caballón se comparó con una labranza mínima respetando la morfología original de los caballones. Los resultados muestran que la introducción de prácticas mínimas de labranza con maquinaria adaptada tiene el potencial de reducir la tasa de erosión en un 45 %.

Una combinación de labranza mínima con maquinaria adaptada y un sistema diversificado con rotación en los callejones tiene el potencial de reducir la tasa de erosión en un 74%. El prototipo de Industrias David, con fácil adaptación de la altura y anchura del arado, facilitaría la labranza menos intensiva respetando la morfología de los caballones y disminuyendo su erosión lateral.

El uso de mejores prácticas de labranza utilizando equipos adecuados que respeten la morfología de los caballones podría disminuir considerablemente las tasas de erosión, aún más si se combinan con esquemas de diversificación.

The diversification of perennial crops (winter thyme intercropped with almond trees) led to an improvement in soil structure and its ability to store carbon and nitrogen. This diversification practice implies tillage cessation while increasing the amount of crop residues that will be incorporated into the soil over time. The combined effect of tillage cessation, which prevents soil structure alteration, and the development of roots and exudates derived from winter thyme, promoting soil retention and the formation of aggregates. The carbon and nitrogen content associated with the macro-aggregates was higher in the almond trees inter-cropped with winter thyme than in the almond monoculture (particularly in the subsoil) indicating that the carbon and nitrogen contained in the secondary crop residues is stored and stabilized in the soil. Parallel to these results, similar rates of carbon mineralization (carbon dioxide emissions inform soil to the atmosphere) were obtained between the diversified crops and the almond monoculture. Thus, despite the short-term nature of our study (3 years), intercropping rainfed almond trees with perennials such as winter thyme in combination with no-tillage can contribute to climate change mitigation by fostering aggregation and organic carbon and nitrogen stabilization in soils without increasing CO2 emissions to the atmosphere, soil restoration and biodiversity enhancement in agroecosystems.

La diversificación de cultivos perennes (tomillo intercalados con almendro) supuso una mejora en la estructura del suelo y en su capacidad para retener el carbono y nitrógeno. Esta práctica de diversificación lleva consigo la supresión de la labranza y el incremento de la cantidad y calidad de los residuos procedentes del nuevo cultivo que se van incorporando al suelo con el tiempo. El efecto combinado del cese del laboreo, evitando la ruptura de los agregados del suelo y el desarrollo de las raíces y exudados del tomillo, que retienen el suelo y mejoran su estructura, se retroalimentan positivamente promoviendo la formación de agregados y el secuestro de carbono en el suelo. El carbono y nitrógeno de los agregados aumentó en los cultivos diversificados con tomillo (particularmente en el subsuelo), indicando que el carbono y nitrógeno que se incorpora al suelo procedente de la vegetación queda protegido. Paralelamente a estos resultados se obtuvieron tasas de mineralización del carbono (emisiones de carbono a la atmósfera) similares entre los cultivos diversificados y el monocultivo de almendros. Así que a pesar de la naturaleza a corto plazo de nuestro estudio (3 años), dejar de labrar e intercalar plantas perennes como el tomillo de invierno entre hileras de almendros de secano puede contribuir a la mitigación del cambio climático al reducir las emisiones de CO2 a la atmósfera a la vez que favorece el secuestro de carbono en el suelo.

Inter-cropped an irrigated mandarin with a triennial crop rotation (fava bean, purslane, and cowpea) reduced the carbon and nitrogen in soil and aggregates compared to the mandarin monocrop. This can be explained by the mechanical disturbance of soil structure caused by increasing the frequency of tillage operations without significantly increasing plant carbon and nitrogen inputs into the soil under this crop diversification system (i.e., all secondary crops are harvested). This has probably promoted the disruption of the new aggregates potentially formed by the roots of the secondary crops that otherwise would have contribute to the incorporation and physical protection of the plant carbon inputs.

However, inter-cropping irrigated mandarin monocrops with a mixture of barley and vetch followed by fava bean annually, incremented the soil nitrogen stocks paralleled by a significant reduction in the carbon mineralization rates (CO2 emissions to the atmosphere) compared to the mandarin monocrop. With this type of inter-cropping, an increase in the quantity and quality of plant carbon inputs contained in the secondary crop residues (by incorporating two or more leguminous species in the crop rotation schemes) was pivotal to offset the potential reductions in the carbon and nitrogen resistant pools.

Moreover, using cover crops as green manure instead of harvest them for livestock feeding (as it is the case in our study) during the first years and reduce the frequency of both tillage and planting operations is highly recommended to boost soil restoration processes in these fragile and degraded agricultural soils and seems to be more appropriate in terms of carbon and nitrogen stabilization.

La diversificación utilizando rotaciones trienales en un mandarino en regadío (habas, verdolaga y caupí) reduce el carbono y el nitrógeno en el suelo así como el asociado con los agregados comparado con su correspondiente monocultivo. Esto se debe al aumento de la frecuencia de las operaciones de labranza sin que aumenten significativamente los aportes de carbono y nitrógeno de las plantas que componen los cultivos secundarios (se cosechan y no se incorporan al suelo). Incrementar la frecuencia del arado provoca la ruptura de los nuevos agregados que se formarían a partir de las raíces de los cultivos secundarios contribuyendo a la incorporación y protección física del carbono procedente de la vegetación.

Sin embargo,las rotaciones anuales con una mezcla de cebada y avena seguidos de habas incrementaron las reservas de nitrógeno del suelo y redujeron significativamente las emisiones de CO2 a la atmósfera en comparación con el monocultivo de mandarina. A pesar de que con esta diversificación también se redujeron los contenidos de carbono en los agregados, el aumento en la calidad de los aportes de carbono contenidos en los residuos de cultivos secundarios (mediante la incorporación de dos o más especies de leguminosas ) fue fundamental para compensar las posibles reducciones en el carbono y nitrógeno más resistente (asociado con los agregados).

Se recomienda, pues, que en lugar de cosechar los cultivos de cobertura para la alimentación del ganado, se utilicen como abono verde durante los primeros años y se reduzcan la frecuencia de las operaciones de labranza y siembra para impulsar los procesos de restauración en suelos agrícolas frágiles y degradados.

Orchard in the Mediterranean region aisles usually remain bare throughout the year. This absence of vegetation cover causes soil degradation and loss by erosive processes, making it essential to implement techniques to protect soils. In turn, alley cropping could be a suitable strategy to increasing land productivity. The aim of this study was to assess if there is a relationship between crop yield and quality and soil hydraulic properties in a diversified mandarin crop. In this respect, we measured soil hydraulic properties such as aggregate size distribution and stability, pH, saturated hydraulic conductivity, water content at field capacity and wilting point, and available water, together with mandarin crop quality properties such as average weight per fruit (g), soluble solids amount (º Brix), juice pH, titratable acidity (g L-1), juice percentage (%), acidity degree (%) and sugar content (º Brix) were determined. For this, three different treatments were applied: i) a mandarin monoculture with bare alley soil all year (MC); ii) a rotation of vetch/barley followed by fava bean (D1), repeated every year in the alleys (with regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) in the mandarin rows); and iii) a rotation of fava bean, purslane and cowpea, with RDI (D2). Similar results were observed independently of treatment. The results of this study showed that an increase in moisture at field capacity and available water results in larger mandarins, with a more neutral pH and a lower proportion of soluble solids. The increase in the latter parameter is also directly correlated with the increase in aggregate size.

Las calles entre los árboles de los huertos de la región mediterránea suelen permanecer sin vegetación durante todo el año. Esta ausencia de cobertura vegetal provoca la degradación y pérdida del suelo por procesos erosivos, siendo imprescindible implementar técnicas de protección de suelos. A su vez, el cultivo en callejones podría ser una estrategia adecuada para aumentar la productividad de la tierra. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar si existe relación entre el rendimiento y la calidad del cultivo y las propiedades hidráulicas del suelo en un cultivo diversificado de mandarina. En este sentido, medimos propiedades del suelo como la distribución del tamaño y la estabilidad de los agregados, el pH, la conductividad hidráulica saturada, el contenido de agua a capacidad de campo y punto de marchitez y el agua disponible, así como propiedades de calidad del cultivo como el peso medio del fruto (g), la cantidad de sólidos solubles (ºBrix), el pH del zumo, la acidez titulable (g L-1), el porcentaje de zumo (%), el grado de acidez (%) y el contenido de azúcar (ºBrix). Para ello, se establecieron 3 tratamientos diferentes: i) un monocultivo de mandarina con el suelo de los callejones sin vegetación (MC); ii) la rotación de veza/cebada seguido de haba (D1), con riego deficitario regulado (RD)); y iii) la rotación de haba, verdolaga y caupí, con RD (D2). Se observaron resultados similares independientemente del tratamiento. Los resultados mostraron que un aumento de la humedad a capacidad de campo y del agua disponible, da como resultado mandarinas de mayor tamaño, con un pH más neutro y una menor proporción de sólidos solubles. El aumento de este último parámetro está directamente relacionado con el aumento del tamaño del agregado.

In the Mediterranean region, alley cropping in orchards could be a suitable strategy to improve soil physical quality while increasing land productivity. The aim of this study was to assess if annual alley cropping can affect aggregate size distribution and stability, soil bulk density, saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks), water content at field capacity and wilting point, and available water. For this, three different treatments were applied: i) a mandarin monoculture with bare alley soil all year (MC); ii) a rotation of vetch/barley followed by fava bean (D1), with regulated deficit irrigation (RDI); and iii) a rotation of fava bean, purslane and cowpea, with RDI (D2). We measured an increase in the amount of available water in all cases, and this increase is slightly higher in D2, despite irrigation limitations. The mean weight diameter (MWD) of the different aggregate classes has been reduced in all three treatments. However, MWD increased in surface samples of D2, despite the fact that the soil had to be prepared for alley cropping and tilled more often than in monoculture, breaking up the aggregates. Ks increased in all cases, especially in MC. This phenomenon may be caused by the appearance of cracks generated by changes in temperature and humidity, and aggravated by the absence of tillage and vegetation cover.

En la región mediterránea, el cultivo de las calles entre las líneas de árboles en los huertos podría ser una estrategia adecuada para mejorar la calidad física del suelo y aumentar la productividad de la tierra. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar si el cultivo anual en callejones puede afectar la distribución del tamaño y la estabilidad de los agregados, la densidad aparente del suelo, la conductividad hidráulica saturada (Ks), el contenido de agua a capacidad de campo y el punto de marchitez, y agua disponible. Para ello, se aplicaron tres tratamientos diferentes: i) un monocultivo de mandarina con el suelo de los callejones desprovisto de vegetación, todo el año (MC); ii) una rotación de veza/cebada seguida de haba (D1), con riego deficitario (RD); y iii) una rotación de haba, verdolaga y caupí, con RD (D2). Medimos un aumento en la cantidad de agua disponible en todos los casos, y este aumento es ligeramente mayor en D2, a pesar de las limitaciones de riego. El diámetro de peso medio (DPM) de las diferentes clases de agregados se ha reducido en los tres tratamientos. Sin embargo, la DPM aumentó en las muestras superficiales de D2, a pesar de que el suelo tuvo que prepararse para el cultivo en callejones y labrarse con más frecuencia que en el monocultivo, rompiendo los agregados. Ks aumentó en todos los casos, especialmente en MC. Este fenómeno puede ser causado por la aparición de grietas generadas por los cambios de temperatura y humedad, y agravado por la ausencia de laboreo y cobertura vegetal.

Legumes offer a good strategy to increase soil biodiversity while enhancing crop production in intercropping systems, reducing the use of fertilizers. The aim of this study was to: i) assess if crop yield and quality can be improved in intercropping systems between melon (Cucumis melo L.) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) under organic management compared with their respective monocrops, and ii) assess if cowpea grown as intercrop can partially replace the use of fertilizers with no negative effects on crop production. We compared, for three crop cycles, monocrops with three different melon-cowpea intercropping patterns: mixed intercropping, row intercropping 1:1 (melon:cowpea) and row intercropping 2:1 (melon:cowpea). Fertilization was reduced by 30% in the diversified plots. The results showed that total production was significantly higher under diversified systems, with land equivalent ratios > 1. Thus, the introduction of cowpea associated to melon could be considered as a sustainable strategy, with higher yields and economic savings for fertilizers and water.

Las leguminosas ofrecen una buena estrategia para aumentar la biodiversidad del suelo al tiempo que mejoran la producción de cultivos en sistemas de diversificados donde se reduce el uso de fertilizantes. El objetivo de este estudio fue: i) evaluar si se puede mejorar el rendimiento y la calidad de los cultivos en sistemas de cultivos diversificados entre melón (Cucumis melo L.) y caupí (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) bajo manejo orgánico, en comparación con sus respectivos monocultivos, así como ii) evaluar si el caupí asociado con el cultivo de melón puede reemplazar parcialmente el uso de fertilizantes, sin causar efectos negativos en la producción. Comparamos, para tres ciclos de cultivo, monocultivos con tres patrones diferentes de cultivo diversificado de melón y caupí: cultivo mixto, intercalado en hileras 1:1 (melón:caupí) e intercalado en hileras 2:1 (melón:caupí). La fertilización se redujo en un 30% en las parcelas diversificadas. Los resultados mostraron que la producción total fue significativamente mayor bajo sistemas diversificados, con ratios equivalentes de tierra > 1. Por lo tanto, la introducción de caupí asociado al melón podría considerarse como una estrategia sostenible, con mayores rendimientos y ahorros económicos en fertilizantes y agua.

Legumes can be regarded as a good alternative in intercropping systems to increase soil organic matter and soil fertility, reducing the use of fertilizers. The aim of this study was to: i) assess if soil physicochemical properties can be improved in intercropping systems between melon (Cucumis melo L.) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) compared with their respective monocrops, all grown under organic management; and ii) evaluate if different intercropping patterns can affect soil properties. We compared, for three crop cycles, monocrops with three different melon-cowpea intercropping patterns: mixed intercropping, row intercropping 1:1 (melon:cowpea) and row intercropping 2:1 (melon:cowpea). Fertilization was reduced by 30% in the diversified plots. After three crop cycles, results showed that intercropping systems, regardless of the pattern, kept soil organic C levels, while it significantly decreased in melon monoculture. Intercropping also significantly increased soil total N, available P and exchangeable K, compared to the melon monocrop. Hence, the introduction of cowpea associated to melon could be considered as a feasible strategy for sustainable agriculture, with economic savings for fertilizers and water.

Las leguminosas se pueden considerar como una buena alternativa en los sistemas de cultivo intercalado para aumentar la materia orgánica del suelo y la fertilidad del suelo, reduciendo el uso de fertilizantes. El objetivo de este estudio fue: i) evaluar si las propiedades fisicoquímicas del suelo pueden mejorarse en sistemas de cultivo intercalado entre melón (Cucumis melo L.) y caupí (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) en comparación con sus respectivos monocultivos, todos cultivados bajo manejo organico; y ii) evaluar si diferentes patrones de cultivo intercalado pueden afectar las propiedades del suelo. Comparamos, para tres ciclos de cultivo, monocultivos con tres patrones diferentes de cultivo intercalado de melón y caupí: cultivo intercalado mixto, intercalado en hileras 1:1 (melón:caupí) e intercalado en hileras 2:1 (melón:caupí). La fertilización se redujo en un 30% en las parcelas diversificadas. Después de tres ciclos de cultivo, los resultados mostraron que los sistemas de cultivo intercalado, independientemente del patrón, mantuvieron los niveles de C orgánico del suelo, mientras que este disminuyó significativamente en el monocultivo de melón. El cultivo intercalado también aumentó significativamente el N total del suelo, el P disponible y el K intercambiable, en comparación con el monocultivo de melón. Por tanto, la introducción del caupí asociado al melón podría preferir como una estrategia factible para una agricultura sostenible, con ahorro económico en fertilizantes y agua.

The Diverfarming project has demonstrated that crop diversification practices can generate benefits.

Since the long-term viability and competitiveness is essential in order to shift to a sustainable, fair, healthy animal friendly, more regional, diversified and resilient food system, which is central to achieving the goals set out in the European Green Deal as well as in the Sustainable Development Goals, policies should promote the development of best practices about the implementation of diversified cropping systems. These best practices should code the conduct of partnerships with all stakeholders, bringing together producers, industry, suppliers, retailers and consumer representatives, and making the best possible use of the existing synergies.

The increasing need to give meaning and perspective to the concepts of quality, competitiveness and sustainability is the driver for the establishment of public-private-partnerships aiming at collective benefits. More specifically, private network creation and players engagement in the agri-food value chains can lead to organizational innovations related to the introduction of new sustainable practices in agri-food sector. If these value chains are associated with the territory and the communities a “brand identity” can be built, then labels and certifications are necessary to increase awareness and be competitive in the market.

Il progetto Diverfarming ha dimostrato che le pratiche di diversificazione delle colture possono generare benefici.

Poiché la fattibilità e la competitività a lungo termine sono essenziali per passare a un sistema alimentare sostenibile, equo, sano, rispettoso degli animali, locale, diversificato e resiliente, che è fondamentale per raggiungere gli obiettivi fissati nel Green Deal Europeo, nonché gli Obiettivi di Sviluppo Sostenibile, le politiche dovrebbero promuovere lo sviluppo di buone pratiche per l’implementazione di sistemi colturali diversificati. Queste buone pratiche dovrebbero codificare la conduzione di partenariati con tutte le parti interessate, riunendo produttori, industria, fornitori, rivenditori e rappresentanti dei consumatori e facendo il miglior uso possibile delle sinergie esistenti.

La crescente necessità di dare significato e prospettiva ai concetti di qualità, competitività e sostenibilità è il motore per la costituzione di partenariati pubblico-privato finalizzati al beneficio collettivo. In particolare, la creazione di reti private e il coinvolgimento degli attori nelle filiere agroalimentari possono portare a innovazioni organizzative legate all'introduzione di nuove pratiche sostenibili nel settore agroalimentare. Se queste filiere sono associate al territorio e alle comunità si può costruire una “brand identity”, e pertanto etichette e certificazioni sono necessarie per aumentare la consapevolezza ed essere competitivi sul mercato.

The soils of flat alluvial fans mantled by blow sand (Humic Arenosols) usually present unfavourable properties for agriculture: low organic matter and soil moisture content, low levels of aggregation, low clay content to absorb nutrients and high exposure to wind erosion. In dry periods when the protective effect of vegetation is reduced, sand storms detach and carry away large amounts of organic particles. The soil profile of the Hungarian study area shows buried humic horizons which indicate intensive reworking by wind action in historical times. Given the limited choice of crops which can be cultivated in the region, an asparagus field was selected for experimentation. Asparagus rows are aligned in the direction of the prevailing wind. The plastic foil cover of asparagus ridges intensifies wind erosion through a wind channel effect. Two different crop diversifications were introduced to assess possible improvements in ecosystem services including wind erosion control: plots with asparagus monocropping (M as control) alternated with pea (D1) and oat intercropping (D2) between asparagus ridges. The flux of eolian transport captured by sediment traps in a 1-metre high and 100-metre wide cross section, measured and analyzed for composition at four heights: on the ground surface, at 30 cm, 200 cm and 400 cm heights.

A futóhomokkal fedett sík felszínű hordalékkúpok talaja, a Humic Arenosol általában a mezőgazdaság számára kedvezőtlen tulajdonságokkal rendelkezik: alacsony a szervesanyag- és talajnedvesség-tartalma, kevés a talajaggregátum, a tápanyagfelvételhez szükséges agyagtartalom és nagymértékben ki van téve a széleróziónak. Száraz időszakokban, amikor a növényzet védőhatása csökken, a homokviharok nagy mennyiségű szerves részecskét hordanak el a felszínről. A magyarországi vizsgált terület talajszelvénye eltemetett humuszszinteket mutat, amelyek a történelmi időkben a szél hatására történő intenzív átdolgozásra utalnak. Tekintettel a régióban termeszthető növények korlátozott választékára, egy spárgaföldet választottunk ki a kísérlethez. A spárgasorok az uralkodó szél irányához igazodnak. A spárgagerincek műanyag fóliatakarója szélcsatorna-hatás útján keresztül fokozza a széleróziót. Két különböző növénykultúra-diverzifikációt vezettek be az ökoszisztéma-szolgáltatások, köztük a szélerózió elleni védekezés lehetséges módjainak felmérésére: a spárga monokultúra (M mint kontroll) parcellák váltakoznak takarmányborsóval (D1) és a spárga bakhátak között zab köztes vetéssel (D2). Az üledékcsapdákkal felfogott szél által szállíított anyagot 1 méter magas és 100 méter széles keresztmetszetben, négy magasságban mértük, összetételét elemeztük: a talajfelszínen, 30 cm, 200 cm és 400 cm magasságban. A meteorológiai adatsorokat a szélcsatorna kísérletekből becsült homokmozgás kezdősebességeire értékeltük. A régióban a kritikus induló szélsebesség 10 m magasságban kb. 6 m s-1. A felszíni kéregképződést lehetővé tevő nagymértékű öntözés a talajvízszint süllyedése miatt nem kivitelezhető. A takarmánynövények kétféleképpen csökkentik a szél által okozott talajeróziót: a homokviharok szempontjából kritikus időszakokban (kora tavasszal és nyár végén) növénytakarás biztosításával, illetve zöldtrágyázás útján szerves anyaggal dúsítva a talajt, ami szintén előnyös a talaj termékenységére. Jelentős különbségek voltak a kezelések között. A borsó- és zabtermés jól hasznosította az időnkénti zivatarokból származó nedvességet, és a második évben folyamatos növénytakarót biztosított. A fővetemény (0-150 cm-es gyökérzóna) és a behozott takarónövények (0-20 cm-es gyökérzóna) között minimális volt az egyezés. Bár a talaj összes nitrogéntartalmának jelentős emelkedése nem érhető el (a rendkívül alacsony agyagtartalommal és aggregátumképző képességgel magyarázható), a szervesanyag-tartalom nőtt a növényi maradványok formájában a talajba juttatott biomassza miatt. (Bár bomlási sebességük alacsony a száraz környezet miatt.) Az üledékszállítás évi 2130 kg a talajfelszínen, 105,39 kg 200 cm-en, 400 cm-en 26,75 kg. A felszínhez közeli üledékcsapdákban az ugráltatott homokszemek medián átmérője 174 µm, +15 cm-nél 134 µm, +200 cm-nél 118 µm, a szemcseméret pedig jelentősen csökkent 42 µm-re (durva iszap) +400 cm-nél.

Erosion rates at alleys in intensive managed woody crops can be very high and decrease soil depth and quality on site. Furthermore erosion processes at alleys in intensive managed woody crops can act as an important source of sediments damaging areas off site. An experiment to diversify intensively managed mandarin crops was carried out during three years. During this period the potential of the diversified crops to control interrill soil erosion in the alleys between mandarin crops was monitored. The introduced diversification was a rotation of Fava beans (Vicia faba) and a mix of Barley (Hordeum vulgare) and vetch (Vicia sativa) that were planted in alleys between citrus ridges. Fava beans were seeded in September and harvested between December and January. Barley and vetch were seeded in February and harvested in June. During the summer months (July to September) the soil of the alleys was bare. Erosion rates were measured and compared between the areas with diversification and the areas with conventional management of the mandarin crops.

During the three years of monitoring, we observed a very high variability of soil erosion rates on control areas and much lower variability of erosion rates on diversified areas. The introduced diversification decreased interrill soil erosion rates a 78 % compared to control areas. The diversification with rotation is able to reduce the erosion rates in the alleys between mandarin crops at a very high percentage due to soil protection by a vegetal cover during several months per year.

Las tasas de erosión en las calles de cultivos leñosos intensivos ubicados en sistemas de calle-caballón pueden ser muy elevadas y afectar negativamente a la profundidad y la calidad del suelo. Además, los procesos erosivos en las calles de cultivos leñosos intensivos pueden actuar como una importante fuente de sedimentos exportándolos e incorporándolos a la red hidrográfica efímera que aparece en eventos intensos, causando innumerables daños aguas abajo. Durante tres años se llevó a cabo un experimento de diversificación de cultivos de mandarinos intensivos con tratamiento convencional en sistemas de calle-caballón.

En este período se evaluó el potencial de los cultivos diversificados para controlar la erosión laminar del suelo en los callejones entre cultivos de mandarina. La diversificación introducida fue una rotación de habas (Vicia faba) y una mezcla de cebada (Hordeum vulgare) y veza (Vicia sativa) que se plantaron en callejones entre caballones de cítricos.

Las habas se sembraron en Septiembre y se cosecharon entre Diciembre y Enero. La cebada y la veza se sembraron en Febrero y se cosecharon en Junio. Durante los meses de verano (Julio a Septiembre) el suelo de los callejones quedó desprovisto de vegetación. Se monitorizó y comparó las tasas de erosión entre las áreas con diversificación y las áreas con manejo convencional. Se observó una elevada variabilidad de las tasas de erosión del suelo en las áreas de control y una variabilidad mucho menor de las tasas de erosión en áreas diversificadas. La diversificación introducida redujo las tasas de erosión laminar del suelo un 78 % en comparación con las zonas de control. La diversificación con rotación en calles entre cultivos leñosos en caballones es capaz de reducir las tasas de erosión en un porcentaje muy alto al aumentar la cobertura vegetal del suelo durante muchos meses al año.

Monocrops of organic rainfed almond (Prunus dulcis Mill.) trees are widely extended in many areas of Mediterranean semiarid climate, very often on bare poor soils, intensively ploughed and with large rates of soil loss by erosion processes. Two crop diversification practices on almond monocrops were implemented to test their effect on soil erosion processes: (i) Intercropping caper (Capparis spinosa) between rainfed almond trees; and (ii) Intercropping winter thyme (Thymus hyemalis) between rainfed almond trees.

The rainfed monocrop area was was chisel ploughed until 15 cm depth. Tillage was performed twice a year (in autumn and spring) to control weeds. In the diversifed rainfed plots, an area of about 1 m around the trunk base of each tree (but not the alleys) was also tilled twice a year, while the rest of the land was no tilled. The capers were planted in February to adapt their root system to the soil before the aerial part begins to sprout. Planting of the thyme took place at the beginning of November. The thymes were harvested to obtain the essential oil in March, always leaving a living part so that they would not dry out

During three years, and despite a very high variability of soil erosion rates, intercropping almond trees with thyme decreased interrill soil erosion rates by a 97 % ; and intercropping almond trees with caper decreased interrill soil erosion rates by a 100%, compared to control areas. Despite the high variability of processes and rates, both diversifications seem very efficient controlling interrill erosion rates.

The intercropping frame must be adapted to local conditions, facilitate farm operations and minimize manual work. If possible intercropping in the alleys between trees and following contour lines is recommended.

Los monocultivos de almendro de secano (Prunus dulcis Mill.) están muy extendidos en áreas de clima semiárido mediterráneo, muy a menudo en suelos desnudos y pobres, intensamente arados y con elevadas tasas de erosión. Se implementaron dos prácticas de diversificación de cultivos en monocultivo de almendros para estudiar la su efecto en las tasas de erosión: i) Cultivos intercalados de alcaparra (Capparis spinosa) entre almendros de secano y ii) Cultivo intercacalado de tomillo de invierno (Thymus hyemalis) entre almendros de secano.

El monocultivo se labró dos veces al año hasta los 15 cm de profundidad, en otoño y primavera para controlar las malas hierbas. En las zonas con la diversificación se labró aproximadamente 1 m alrededor de la base del tronco de cada árbol dos veces al año. Las alcaparras se plantaron en Febrero para adaptar su sistema radicular al suelo antes del desarrollo de la parte aérea. La plantación del tomillo tuvo lugar a principios de noviembre. Los tomillos se cosecharon para la obtención de aceite esencial en Marzo, dejando siempre una parte viva en la planta.

Durante tres años, y a pesar de una variabilidad muy alta de las tasas de erosión del suelo, el cultivo intercalado de tomillo entre almendros disminuyó las tasas de erosión laminar del suelo en un 97 %; y el cultivo intercalado de alcaparras entre almendros disminuyó las tasas de erosión laminar del suelo en su totalidad, en comparación con las áreas de control.

Ambas diversificaciones se mostraron muy eficientes en el control de la erosión laminar. El marco de cultivo intercalado debe adaptarse a las condiciones locales, facilitar las operaciones mecánicas en el campo y minimizar el trabajo manual.

Soil biological characteristics are affected by the intensive use of machinery and tillage, which creates heavy pressure on agroecosystems. In this regard, changes in the soil bacterial community structure and in the main drivers involved in shifts in the microbial community were assessed after 10 years implementing reduced tillage and reduced tillage plus green manure in a rainfed Mediterranean almond orchard. The treatments were: i) conventional tillage; ii) reduced tillage; and iii) reduced tillage and diversification with Avena sativa and Vicia sativa. The results showed that the different managements had no significant effect on almond yields. The bacterial community significantly changed with management: reduced tillage and diversification with Avena sativa and Vicia sativa showed a higher relative abundance of the family Solirubrobacteraceae and the genera Streptomyces and Solirubrobacter. The bacterial community structure was explained by changes in soil physicochemical properties. For this reason, the combination of reduced tillage and green manure proved to be a proper sustainable management for rainfed almond orchards under fragile environmental conditions, due to an increase in the higher presence of beneficial bacteria related to soil productivity.

Las características biológicas del suelo se ven afectadas por el uso intensivo de maquinaria y laboreo, ya que este genera una fuerte presión sobre los agroecosistemas. En este sentido, se evaluaron los cambios en la estructura de la comunidad bacteriana del suelo y en los principales impulsores involucrados en los cambios en la comunidad microbiana después de 10 años implementando labranza reducida y labranza reducida más abono verde en un huerto de almendros de secano. Los tratamientos fueron: i) labranza convencional; ii) labranza reducida; y iii) labranza reducida y diversificación con Avena sativa y Vicia sativa. Los resultados mostraron que los diferentes manejos no tuvieron un efecto significativo en los rendimientos de almendra. La comunidad bacteriana cambió significativamente con el manejo: la labranza reducida y la diversificación con Avena sativa y Vicia sativa mostró una mayor abundancia relativa de la familia Solirubrobacteraceae y los géneros Streptomyces y Solirubrobacter. La estructura de la comunidad bacteriana se explica por cambios en las propiedades fisicoquímicas del suelo. Por este motivo, la combinación de laboreo reducido y abonos verdes resultaron ser una gestión sostenible adecuada para huertos de almendros de secado en condiciones ambientales frágiles, debido a un aumento en la presencia de bacterias beneficiosas relacionados con la productividad del suelo.

Soil health and function is one of the most important components for sustainable management of woody orchards. Intensive use of machinery and tillage creates heavy pressure on agroecosystems by altering the soil physicochemical characteristics. We aimed to assess the changes in soil physicochemical properties following 10 years implementing reduced tillage and reduced tillage plus green manure in a rainfed Mediterranean almond orchard. The treatments were: i) conventional tillage (CT); ii) reduced tillage (RT); and iii) reduced tillage and diversification with Avena sativa and Vicia sativa (RTD). The results showed that the different managements had no significant effect on almond yields. RTD significantly increased total organic carbon (TOC), with an average content of 19.5 g kg-1 compared to 17.1 g kg-1 in CT. RTD also contributed to an increase in the fraction of soil macro-aggregates. Both RT and RTD significantly increased soil total nitrogen (NT) and particulate organic carbon (POC). However, other physical and chemical variables such as exchangeable Ca, Mg and K, bioavailable Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn, cation exchange capacity, bulk density, wilting point and field capacity were not significantly affected by the management. Thus, a combination of reduced tillage and green manure could represent an appropriate sustainable management for rainfed almond orchards in very fragile environmental conditions, due to an increase in soil organic matter and total nitrogen.

La salud y función del suelo es uno de los componentes más importantes para la gestión sostenible de los huertos leñosos. El uso intensivo de maquinaria y labranza crea una fuerte presión sobre los agroecosistemas al alterar las características fisicoquímicas del suelo. Nuestro objetivo fue evaluar los cambios en las propiedades fisicoquímicas del suelo después de 10 años implementando labranza reducida y labranza reducida más abono verde en un cultivo de almendro en secano. Los tratamientos fueron: i) labranza convencional; ii) labranza reducida; y iii) labranza reducida y diversificación con Avena sativa y Vicia sativa. Los resultados mostraron que los diferentes manejos no tuvieron un efecto significativo en los rendimientos de almendra. El tratamiento con labranza reducida y diversificación aumentó significativamente el carbono orgánico total, con un contenido promedio de 19,5 g kg-1 en comparación con 17,1 g kg-1 en el tratamiento convencional. El tratamiento con labranza reducida y diversificación también contribuyó a un aumento en la fracción de macroagregados del suelo. Tanto el tratamiento reducido como el reducido con diversificación aumentaron significativamente el nitrógeno total del suelo y el carbono orgánico particulado. Sin embargo, otras variables físicas y químicas como Ca, Mg y K intercambiables, Fe, Cu, Zn y Mn biodisponibles, capacidad de intercambio catiónico, densidad aparente, punto de marchitez y capacidad de campo no fueron afectadas por el manejo. La combinación de laboreo reducido y abono verde podría representar una gestión sostenible adecuada para huertos de almendros de secano en condiciones ambientales muy frágiles, debido al aumento de la materia orgánica del suelo y el nitrógeno total.

Perennial alley cropping in orchards is a sustainable strategy to contribute to climate change mitigation, while farm productivity is increased. In this research, we evaluated the short-term effect of alley cropping with reduced tillage on soil greenhouse gas emissions (CO2 and N2O) in an almond orchard under Mediterranean rainfed conditions. We compared an almond monoculture with tillage in all plot surface (monocrop) with almond crop with reduced tillage and growth of Capparis spinosa (Diversification 1) and almond crop with reduced tillage and growth of Thymus hyemalis (Diversification 2). For two years, soil CO2 and N2O were measured. Results showed that CO2 emission rates followed the soil temperature pattern, while N2O emissions were not correlated with temperature nor moisture. Soil CO2 emissions were significantly higher in monocrop (87 mgm−2 h−1), with no significant differences between Diversification 1 and Diversification 2 (69 mgm−2 h−1). Some peaks in CO2 effluxes were observed after tillage operations during warm days. Soil N2O emission rates were not significantly different among treatments. Cumulative CO2 emissions were significantly highest in monocrop.

El cultivo de especies perennes en callejones en los huertos es una estrategia sostenible para contribuir a la mitigación del cambio climático, al mismo tiempo que se aumenta la productividad agrícola. En esta investigación, se ha evaluado el efecto a corto plazo del cultivo en callejones con labranza reducida, sobre las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero (CO2 y N2O) del suelo en un huerto de almendros en condiciones de secano mediterráneo. Comparamos un monocultivo de almendro con laboreo en toda la superficie de la parcela (Monocultivo), con el cultivo de almendro con laboreo reducido y crecimiento de Capparis spinosa (Diversificación 1) y con el cultivo de almendro con laboreo reducido y crecimiento de Thymus hyemalis (Diversificación 2). Durante dos años se midieron las emisiones de CO2 y el N2O del suelo. Los resultados mostraron que las tasas de emisión de CO2 siguieron el patrón de temperatura del suelo, mientras que las emisiones de N2O no se correlacionaron con la temperatura ni la humedad. Las emisiones de CO2 del suelo fueron significativamente mayores en monocultivo (87 mgm−2 h−1), sin diferencias significativas entre Diversificación 1 y Diversificación 2 (69 mgm−2 h−1). Se observaron algunos picos en las emisiones de CO2 después de la labranza durante los días más cálidos. Las tasas de emisión de N2O del suelo no fueron significativamente diferentes entre los tratamientos. Las emisiones acumuladas de CO2 fueron significativamente más altas en los monocultivos.

The implementation of alley cropping in orchards can be a sustainable strategy to increase farm productivity by crop diversification and contribute to climate change mitigation. For this reason, we evaluated the short-term effect of alley cropping with reduced tillage on soil CO2 emissions and soil total organic carbon (TOC) in an almond orchard under Mediterranean rainfed conditions. We compared an almond monoculture with tillage in all plot surface (MN) with almond crop with reduced tillage and growth of Capparis spinosa (D1) and almond crop with reduced tillage and growth of Thymus hyemalis (D2). Regarding CO2e emissions, expressed on a crop production basis, D2 showed the significantly lowest values compared to D1 and MN, owing to the high thyme yield, additional to the almond yield. No production was obtained for C. spinosa. TOC did not change with time in MN neither D1, but it significantly increased in D2 from 3.85 g kg−1 in 2019 to 4.62 g kg−1 in 2021. Thus, alley cropping can contribute to increase the agroecosystem productivity and reduce CO2 emissions. However, it is necessary to grow evergreen alley crops such as thyme to obtain short-term increases in soil organic matter. Thus, to estimate increases in TOC with alley cropping, the plantation density and the period required by the crop to cover most of the surface are essential factors at planning the cropping strategy.

El establecimiento de cultivos en callejones en los huertos puede ser una estrategia sostenible para aumentar la productividad agrícola mediante la diversificación de cultivos, y contribuir a la mitigación del cambio climático. Por esta razón, evaluamos el efecto a corto plazo del cultivo en callejones con labranza reducida sobre las emisiones de CO2 del suelo y el carbono orgánico total (COT) del suelo en un huerto de almendros en condiciones de secano. Comparamos un monocultivo de almendro con laboreo en toda la superficie de la parcela (MN) con el cultivo de almendro con laboreo reducido y crecimiento de Capparis spinosa (D1) y con el cultivo de almendro con laboreo reducido y crecimiento de Thymus hyemalis (D2). Los resultados mostraron que las emisiones acumuladas de CO2 fueron significativamente más altas en el MN. En cuanto a las emisiones de CO2e, expresadas en función de la producción de cultivos, la D2 mostró los valores significativamente más bajos en comparación con la D1 y el MN, debido a la alta rendimiento de tomillo, adicional al rendimiento de almendra. No se obtuvo producción para C. spinosa. El COT no cambió con el tiempo en el MN ni en la D1, pero aumentó significativamente en la D2 de 3,85 g kg−1 en 2019 a 4,62 g kg−1 en 2021. Por lo tanto, el cultivo en callejones puede contribuir a aumentar la productividad del agroecosistema y reducir las emisiones de CO2. Sin embargo, es necesario cultivar cultivos de hoja perenne como el tomillo para obtener aumentos a corto plazo en la materia orgánica del suelo. Así, para estimar incrementos en COT con cultivo en callejones, la densidad de plantación y el tiempo que requiere el cultivo para cubrir la mayor parte de la superficie son factores esenciales en la planificación de la estrategia de cultivo.

Crop diversification practices are an important strategy for preserving the crop productivity and sustainability. In this context, a woody crop was intercropped with different rotations of herbaceous crops, which were established in the alleys between the trees. During three years, different crop rotations were established in a traditional mandarin orchard in SE Spain, specifically intercropping practices were implemented in a traditional mandarin orchard in south-eastern Spain, mandarin trees intercropped with the rotation of vetch/barley and fava bean, and mandarin trees intercropped with the rotation of fava bean, purslane and cowpea. These diversification practices were monitored to evaluate their impact on the profitability. The costs and revenues assessment was based on materials, labor, and machinery used in the trial. The economic analysis showed that while intercrops may involve additional production costs, the correct choice of intercrops, purslane, and fava bean, in this case, can reduce the market risks for farmers. Overall, this study shows that positive economic impacts are to be expected of co-integrated herbaceous crops within the same field as mandarin trees.

Las prácticas de diversificación de cultivos son una estrategia importante para preservar la productividad y la sostenibilidad de los cultivos. En este contexto, un cultivo leñoso fue asociado con diferentes rotaciones de cultivos herbáceos, que se establecieron en las calles entre las líneas de árboles. Durante tres años, se establecieron diferentes rotaciones de cultivos en un huerto tradicional de mandarinos en el sureste de España, concretamente se implementaron prácticas de cultivo intercalado en un huerto tradicional de mandarinos en el sureste de España, mandarinos intercalados con la rotación de veza/cebada y habas, y mandarinos intercalados con la rotación de habas, verdolaga y caupí. Estas prácticas de diversificación fueron monitoreadas para evaluar su impacto en la rentabilidad. La evaluación de costos e ingresos se basó en los materiales, la mano de obra y la maquinaria utilizados en el ensayo. El análisis económico mostró que, si bien los cultivos intercalados pueden implicar costos de producción adicionales, la elección correcta de cultivos intercalados, verdolaga y habas, en este caso, puede reducir los riesgos de mercado para los agricultores. En general, este estudio muestra que se esperan impactos económicos positivos de los cultivos herbáceos integrados dentro del mismo campo que los mandarinos.

Crop diversification is becoming increasingly important for preserving soil and ecosystems’ health and, subsequently, crop productivity and sustainability. Intercropping practices adopted in monocultural woody crops, with herbaceous crops covering the otherwise bare alleyways, foster ecological interactions and can provide both environmental and economic advantages. During three years, intercropping practices were implemented in a traditional mandarin orchard in SE Spain: mandarin trees intercropped with the rotation of vetch/barley and fava bean, and mandarin trees with the rotation of fava bean, purslane and cowpea. These crops were monitored to assess their impact on the environmental footprint. This footprint was quantified with the life cycle assessment, which evaluates the environmental impacts of these practices during all stages of their existence. The calculated life cycle indicators evidenced that, although the cultivated surface area increases with the integration of the intercrops (fava bean, purslane, cowpea, and barley/vetch mix), this does not imply any additional detrimental effects such as the resource depletion, the acidification, the eutrophication or the global warming.

La diversificación de cultivos es cada vez más importante para preservar la salud del suelo y los ecosistemas y, en consecuencia, la productividad y la sostenibilidad de los cultivos. Las prácticas de cultivo intercalado adoptadas en cultivos leñosos de monocultivo, con cultivos herbáceos que cubren los callejones que de otro modo estarían vacíos, fomentan las interacciones ecológicas y pueden proporcionar ventajas ambientales. Durante tres años, se implementaron prácticas de cultivo intercalado en un huerto tradicional de mandarinos en el sureste de España: cultivo de mandarino asociado con la rotación de cebada/veza y haba, y cultivo de mandarino asociado con la rotación de haba, verdolaga y judía africana. Estos cultivos fueron monitoreados para evaluar su impacto en la huella ambiental. Esta huella se cuantificó a través de la evaluación del ciclo de vida, que evalúa los impactos ambientales de estas prácticas durante todas las etapas de su existencia. Los indicadores del ciclo de vida calculados evidenciaron que, si bien la superficie cultivada aumenta con la integración de los cultivos intercalados (haba, verdolaga, caupí y mezcla de cebada y veza), esto no implica efectos perjudiciales adicionales tales como el agotamiento de los recursos, la acidificación, la eutrofización o el calentamiento global.

Intensive orchard monocrops in the Mediterranean region causes environmental problems such as erosion, soil organic matter loss and nutrient leaching, by leaving alley soil bare. Alley cropping could be a suitable strategy to improve soil fertility while increasing land productivity. This study aimed to assess the effect of different alley crop rotations on soil fertility, and their possible effect on counteracting the effects of water stress on mandarin production after three crop cycles. For this, 3 different treatments were applied: i) a mandarin monocrop (MC); ii) a multiple cropping of vetch/barley and fava bean (D1) (with regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) in the mandarin rows); and iii) a rotation of fava bean, purslane, and cowpea, with RDI (D2). Soil was sampled at two different depths (0-10 cm and 10-30 cm) in the alleys in all treatments. Nutrients and cation exchange capacity (CEC) were measured. Chemical fertility remained almost constant in MC with time. A slight increase in the CEC was observed in D1, while the amount of ammonium and P remained constant. On the other hand, the D2 plots experienced an increase in B and P, and in total N at 0-10 cm depth. Yield was significantly higher during the first year in MC. Changes in production were similar in the 3 treatments. Average fruit size remained almost constant in MC, but increased in D1 and D2. Regarding the productivity of the land, it was higher in MC during the first year. However, it decreased in MC and D2 during the last year, and values like those obtained initially were only maintained in D1 treatment. When correlating soil and crop properties, we found a good correlation between the amount of bioavailable Cu in the soil, and the production of mandarins.

Los monocultivos intensivos en la región mediterránea causan problemas ambientales como la erosión, pérdida de materia orgánica y la lixiviación de nutrientes, al dejar desnudo el suelo de las calles. El cultivo en estas calles podría ser una estrategia adecuada para mejorar la fertilidad del suelo y aumentar la productividad de la tierra. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo evaluar el efecto de diferentes rotaciones de cultivos sobre la fertilidad del suelo y la producción de mandarina. Para ello se aplicaron 3 tratamientos diferentes: i) un monocultivo de mandarina (MC); ii) un cultivo múltiple de veza/cebada y haba (D1) (con riego deficitario regulado (RDI) en los mandarinos); y iii) una rotación de haba, verdolaga y caupí, con RDI (D2). Se tomaron muestras de suelo a 2 profundidades (0-10 cm y 10-30 cm). Se midieron los nutrientes y la capacidad de intercambio catiónico (CIC). La fertilidad permaneció casi constante en MC con el tiempo. Se observó un ligero aumento en la CIC en D1, mientras que la cantidad de amonio y P se mantuvo constante. Por otro lado, las parcelas D2 experimentaron un incremento en B y P, y en N total a 0-10 cm de profundidad. El rendimiento fue significativamente mayor durante el primer año en MC. Los cambios en la producción fueron similares en los 3 tratamientos. El tamaño promedio de fruto se mantuvo casi constante en MC, pero aumentó en D1 y D2. En cuanto a la productividad de la tierra, fue mayor en MC durante el primer año. Sin embargo, disminuyó en MC y D2 durante el último año, y valores como los obtenidos inicialmente sólo se mantuvieron en el tratamiento D1. Al correlacionar las propiedades del suelo y del cultivo, encontramos una buena correlación entre la cantidad de Cu biodisponible en el suelo y la producción de mandarinas.

In Finnish diversification study a set of different potential soil-enzyme activities of nitrogen metabolism were measured alongside with the content of their substrates, end-products or substances related to their metabolism. The results are presented here by reporting correlation. Measurements were made post-harvest before possible tilling.

Potential nitrification measures biological oxidation of ammonium (NH4+) to nitrite (NO2 -) by autotrophic bacteria and archaea. In the nature the reaction would have continued into oxidation of nitrite to nitrate (NO3 -). However, this reaction step was inhibited by an additive. The content of ammonia in soil (substrate) correlated (0,54) with potential nitrification but the content of nitrate did not (0,00).

Leucine-aminopeptidase catalyze the hydrolysis of leucine residues at the N-terminus of peptides and proteins. The leucine-aminopeptidase is indirectly involved into nitrogen cycle and we found positive correlation with total nitrogen (0,61) and ammonium content (0,64). Nitrate content had weak negative correlation (-0,29). Most of the ammonia (NH3) in is produced by soil bacteria decomposing plant and animal waste. In water, ammonia turns into ammonium.

Potential soil-enzyme activities can be used to describe the condition of the soil. In healthy agricultural soil, enzyme activities, in general, have positive correlation for the substrate contents and negative for the end-product. This is a sign of a functional nutrient cycle. However, enzyme activity measurements do not offer exact data about nutrient level like traditional soil fertility analysis. Soil enzyme analyses are expensive but they can offer an insight on the biochemical reactions in soils.

Suomalaisessa monimuotoisuustutkimuksessa verrattiin typen kiertoon liittyvien maaperäentsyymien aktiivisuuden potentiaalia mm. niiden lähtö- ja lopputuotteiden pitoisuuksiin maaperässä. Tulokset esitetään korrelaationa kahden muuttujan välillä. Määritykset tehtiin sadonkorjuun jälkeen ennen mahdollista maan muokkaamista.

Potentiaalisessa nitrifikaatiossa määritetään ammoniumin (NH4+) hapettumista nitriitiksi (NO2 -) bakteerien ja arkeonien toimesta. Reaktio jatkuisi vielä nitriitin hapettamisella nitraatiksi (NO3 -), mutta tämä estetään määrityksessä lisäaineen avulla. Ammoniumin pitoisuus maaperässä korreloi kohtalaisesti (0,54) entsyymiaktiivisuuden kanssa, kun taas nitraattipitoisuudella ei havaittu lainkaan korrelaatiota (0,00).

Leusiini-aminopeptidaasi katalysoi leusiinin irrottamista peptidien ja proteiinien N-terminaalisesta päästä. Entsyymin toiminta liittyy typen kiertoon ja sen aktiivisuudella oli kohtalainen korrelaation typen kokonaismäärän (0,61) ja ammoniumin (0,64) pitoisuuksin kanssa. Nitraattipitoisuudella oli heikko negatiinen (-0,29) korrelaatio. Suurin osa maaperään muodostuvasta ammoniakista (NH3) syntyy bakteerien hajottaessa kasvi- ja eläinperästä jätettä. Ammoniakki muuttuu vedessä ammoniumioniksi.

Aktiivisuusmäärityksillä voidaan kuvata maaperän tilaa. Tavallisesti aktiivisuus korreloi positiivisesti lähtöaineen ja negatiivisesti lopputuotteen pitoisuuden kanssa. Tästä huolimatta aktiivisuusmäärityksen eivät anna tarkkaa tietoa maan ravinnepitoisuuksista, kuten viljavuustutkimukset, jotka ovat lisäksi edullisempia. Entsyymiaktiivisuusmäärityksillä voidaan ymmärtää maaperän biokemiallisista reaktioista.

In a Finnish diversification study a set of different potential soil-enzyme activities related to carbon, phosphate and sulfur mineralization were measured alongside with the content of their substrates, end-products or substances related to their metabolism. The results are presented here by reporting correlation. Measurements were made post-harvest before possible ploughing.

Beta-glucosidases perform hydrolysis of various glucosides and oligosaccharides into beta-D-glucose molecules. We found strong correlation (0,78 and 0,91) between potential beta-glucosidase activity and total organic carbon content in two consecutive years. Organic carbohydrates, such as cellulose, are substrates for beta-glucosidase.

Acid phosphatases free attached phosphoryl (PO4 3-) groups from macromolecules thus are responsible for mineralization of organic phosphorus. The potential activity correlated negatively (-0,56) with available phosphate content, the end-product of this enzyme.

Aryl-sulfatases are responsible for mineralization of organic sulfur by freeing sulfate (SO42-). The potential activity correlated slightly negatively (-0,25) with total sulfur content.

Potential soil-enzyme activities can be used to describe the condition of the soil. In healthy agricultural soil enzyme activities, in general, have positive correlation for the substrate contents and negative for the end-products. This is a sign of a functional nutrient cycle. However, enzyme activity measurements do not offer exact data about the nutrient level like traditional soil fertility analysis. Soil enzyme analyses are expensive but they can offer an insight on the biochemical reactions in soils.

Suomalaisessa monimuotoisuustutkimuksessa verrattiin hiilen, fosforin ja rikin kiertoon liittyvien maaperäentsyymien aktiivisuuden potentiaalia mm. niiden lähtö- ja lopputuotteiden pitoisuuksiin maaperässä. Tulokset esitetään korrelaationa kahden muuttujan välillä. Määritykset tehtiin sadonkorjuun jälkeen ennen mahdollista maan muokkaamista.

Beta-glukosidaasi hajottaa glykosideja ja oligosakkarideja beta-D-glukoosi molekyyleiksi. Beta-glokosidaasi aktiivisuuden ja kokonaishiilipitoisuuden välillä havaittiin voimakas korrelaatio (0,78 ja 0,91) kahtena peräkkäisennä näytteenottovuotena. Orgaaniset hiilihydraatit, kuten kasvien selluloosa, ovat beta-glukosidaasin lähtöaineita.

Hapan fosfataasi irrottaa fosfaattiryhmiä (PO4 3-) orgaanisista makromolekyyleistä. Entsyymin toiminta liittyy kiinteästi osana fosforin ravinnekiertoa. Fosfataasin aktivisuus korreloi kohtalaisen negatiisesti (-0,56) saatavilla olevan vapaan fosforin pitoisuuden kanssa.

Aryl-sulfataasit irrottavat sulfaattiryhmän (SO42-) arylsulfaatista, joka on fenoliyhdiste. Entsyymin toiminta liittyy kiinteästi osana rikin ravinnekiertoa. Aryl-sulfataasin aktiivisuus korreloi heikon negatiivisesti (-0,25) rikin (S) kokonaispitoisuuden kanssa.

Aktiivisuusmäärityksillä voidaan kuvata maaperän tilaa. Tavallisesti aktiivisuus korreloi positiivisesti lähtöaineen ja negatiivisesti lopputuotteen pitoisuuden kanssa. Tästä huolimatta aktiivisuusmäärityksen eivät anna tarkkaa tietoa maan ravinnepitoisuuksista, kuten viljavuustutkimukset, jotka ovat lisäksi edullisempia. Entsyymiaktiivisuusmäärityksillä voidaan ymmärtää maaperän biokemiallisista reaktioista.

Growing aromatic herbs in shallow vineyards presents some challenges to the winemaker and requires a basic knowledge of herb cultivation.

In contrast to the low cost of materials (herb seedlings), the labour cost of planting and plant care in the first year is significant.

Herbs can be harvested from the 1st year after establishment. Material costs for harvesting and drying are low; again most costs are labour hours.

For the production of the essential herbal oils as the basic product of the cosmetic products, a contract distillation has to be used. Logistics as well as the remuneration of the service provider result in further costs.

Simple cosmetic products such as bath additives or soaps can be produced with low material and cost expenditure by the winery itself or in cooperation with small cosmetic-producers.

For marketing and sales of the products, on the one hand, the distribution channels of wine are available -> end customers and smaller resellers. Due to the diversified product range, stores focused on regional products as well as further eco-conscious and solvent customers can be gained, who have not been addressed by wine so far. This can also have a positive feedback effect on wine sales.

In order to be able to call cost-covering prices for the cosmetics, the ecological added value of the herbal-cosmetic products must be transparently presented and disseminated through marketing. Story-telling through social media plays an important role here. These marketing channels are already used by direct marketing vintners. The marketing costs for the herbal products can thus be kept low.

Der Anbau von Kräutern im Weinberg stellt den Winzer vor einige Herausforderungen und erfordert Grundkenntnisse im Kräuteranbau.

Im Gegensatz zu geringen Materialkosten (Kräutersetzlinge) sind die Arbeitskosten für die Anpflanzung und die Pflanzenpflege im ersten Jahr hoch.

Die Kräuter können ab dem 1. Jahr nach der Pflanzung geerntet werden. Materialkosten für Ernten und Trocknen sind gering; auch hier sind die meisten Kosten die anfallenden Arbeitsstunden.

Die Herstellung der ätherischen Kräuteröle als Basis der kosmetischen Produkte muss durch eine Lohndestillation erfolgen. Die Logistik sowie die Vergütung des Dienstleisters verursachen weitere Kosten.

Einfache kosmetische Produkte wie Badezusätze oder Seifen können mit geringem Material- und Kostenaufwand vom Weingut selbst oder in Kooperation mit kleinen Kosmetikherstellern hergestellt werden.

Für die Vermarktung und den Verkauf der Produkte stehen zum einen die Vertriebswege des Weins zur Verfügung -> Endkunden und kleinere Wiederverkäufer. Durch die diversifizierte Produktpalette können sowohl auf regionale Produkte fokussierte Geschäfte als auch weitere umweltbewusste und zahlungskräftige Kunden gewonnen werden, die bisher nicht durch Wein angesprochen wurden. Dies kann auch einen positiven Rückkopplungseffekt auf den Weinabsatz haben.

Um kostendeckende Preise für die Kosmetika aufrufen zu können, muss deren ökologischer Mehrwert transparent dargestellt und durch Marketing verbreitet werden. Das „Storytelling“ über soziale Medien spielt dabei eine wichtige Rolle. Diese Marketingkanäle werden von direktvermarktenden Winzern bereits genutzt. Die Vermarktungskosten für die Kosmetik- Produkte können so gering gehalten werden.

The adoption of citrus crop diversification practices generates a series of environmental benefits (erosion reduction, carbon balance improvement, biodiversity increase, etc.). In addition, society demands crops produced with environmentally friendly practices, such as crop diversification, and hence the double interest in promoting the adoption of this agricultural practice. The DIVERFARMING project has experienced two intercropping diversifications between mandarins for three years, one corresponding to a rotation of barley/vetch and fava bean as alley crops, and an interannual rotation of fava bean (year 1), purslane (year 2) and cowpea (year 3). As the economic-financial results do not show the existence of significant differences between monocrop and diversification, in terms of gross margins, business models based on three alternatives (A. Labels for diversified products, B. Direct subsidies to farmers adopting this practice or C. Including diversification as an environmental measure to be financed within the operational programs). For the selection of alternatives, three financial criteria have been considered (transaction costs, investment costs and operational and maintenance costs) using a multi-criteria methodology. The results suggest that the implementation of a business model based on alternative C, including diversification practices as environmental practices of the operational programs, to be executed by producer organizations, would have greater acceptability among farmers.

La diversificación de cultivos en cítricos genera una serie de beneficios ambientales (reducción de erosión, mayor balance de carbono, incremento de biodiversidad, etc.). Además, la sociedad demanda cultivos producidos con prácticas más respetuosas con el medio ambiente, como la diversificación. De ahí el doble interés de promover su adopción. El proyecto DIVERFARMING ha experimentado dos cultivos intercalados entre mandarinos durante tres años: (1) rotación de cebada/veza y haba en las calles; (2) rotación interanual de haba (año 1), verdolaga (año 2) y caupí (año 3). Como los resultados económico-financieros no han mostrado diferencias significativas entre monocultivo y diversificación en términos de márgenes brutos, se han evaluado por expertos modelos de negocio basados en tres alternativas (A. Etiquetas de productos diversificados, B. Subvenciones a agricultores que realicen estas prácticas, o C. la inclusión de la diversificación como una medida ambiental financiable dentro de los programas operativos). Para la selección de alternativas, se ha atendido a tres criterios financieros (costes de transacción, costes de inversión y costes operacionales y de mantenimiento) utilizando una metodología multicriterio. Los resultados sugieren que un modelo de negocio basado en la alternative C, es decir, la inclusión de las prácticas de diversificación como prácticas ambientales de los programas operativos a ejecutar por las organizaciones de productores, tendría una mayor aceptabilidad entre los agricultores.

Vegetable diversification with legumes is a promising agricultural practice for farmers generating a positive impact on their farm margins, compared to traditional monocrop. To this end, the Diverfarming project has developed the case study of melon intercropped with cowpea, a three-year experiment carried out on a farm in the Region of Murcia (south-eastern Spain). Thus, the presence of legumes in the diversification reduces fertilization needs by 30%. Moreover, market revenues from melon intercropping is significantly higher than from melon monocrop. However, the higher labour costs of diversification dilute the gains from higher revenues and the lower fertilizer costs, so that intercropping margins are not significantly different from the margins from melon monocrop. Nevertheless, it should be noted that the diversification of melon and legumes makes it possible to mitigate the market risk for farmers.

La diversificación de hortícolas con leguminosas es una práctica de cultivo prometedora para los agricultores al generar un impacto positivo en los márgenes de sus explotaciones, en comparación con el tradicional cultivo de hortícolas en monocultivo. Para abordar este cometido, el proyecto Diverfarming ha llevado a cabo el caso de estudio de melón intercalado con caupí, un experimento de tres años de duración desarrollado en una finca de la Región de Murcia (sudeste de España). Así, la presencia de una leguminosa en la diversificación hace que se reduzcan sus necesidades de fertilización en un 30%. Además, los ingresos de la diversificación son significativamente superiores a los obtenidos en monocultivo. Sin embargo, los mayores costes de mano de obra de la diversificación hacen que se diluyan tanto estos mayores ingresos, como los menores costes de fertilizantes, de modo que los márgenes del cultivo intercalado no son significativamente diferentes a los del monocultivo de melón. En este sentido, cabe destacar que la diversificación melón y leguminosas permite mitigar el riesgo de mercado para los agricultores derivado de la volatilidad del precio de venta del melón.

The adoption of diversification practices by farmers depends on the farm level financial impact. To achieve positive financial impact in the case of mandarin cultivation on a farm located in the Region of Murcia (south-eastern Spain), a comparison of farm gross margins between full irrigated monocrops and diversified cropping systems under regulated deficit irrigation is carried out. Two mandarin intercropped systems have been analysed for three years, of which the first diversification corresponds to an annual rotation of barley/vetch and fava bean as alley crops, and the second, an interannual rotation of fava bean (year 1), purslane (year 2) and cowpea (year 3). The results highlight that there are no significant differences between monoculture and diversification in terms of gross margins, while diversification has positive effects on soil and environment. However, it should be noted that the variable costs of diversifications, especially those derived from labour, must be carefully controlled, in order to prevent them from affecting the farm profitability. Likewise, the results also show that intercropped mandarin with the annual rotation of fava bean and purslane can be a feasible alternative to reduce the market risk of farmers.

La adopción de prácticas de diversificación por parte de los agricultores depende del impacto financiero que pueden tener en su explotación. Para ello, y tomando como caso de estudio el cultivo de mandarino en una finca localizada en la Región de Murcia (sudeste de España), se ha llevado a cabo una comparación de los márgenes brutos de la explotación para el caso de mandarino en monocultivo con regadío tradicional y su respectiva diversificación bajo riego deficitario controlado. Se han analizado dos diversificaciones de cultivos intercalados entre los mandarinos durante tres años, de las que la primera diversificación se corresponde con una rotación anual de cebada/veza y haba, y la segunda, una rotación interanual de haba (año 1), verdolaga (año 2) y caupí (año 3). Los resultados financieros han puesto de relieve que no existen diferencias significativas entre monocultivo y diversificación en términos de márgenes, mientras revelan que la diversificación genera efectos positivos en el suelo y el medioambiente. No obstante, cabe destacar que los costes variables de las diversificaciones, especialmente los derivados de la mano de obra, requieren una especial atención, a fin de evitar que afecten a la rentabilidad de la explotación. Asimismo, de los resultados también se desprende que la rotación de cultivos intercalados de haba y verdolaga puede ser una alternativa viable para reducir el riesgo de mercado de los agricultores en comparación con tener un único cultivo de mandarina.

The sustainability of crop diversification has been evaluated on its impact on the farm financial results. Thus, the case study of thyme intercropping between rainfed almond alleys on a farm located in the Region of Murcia (south-eastern Spain) is presented. The analysis of the financial benefits and costs of this farm for three years shows that the income derived from secondary crop, in this case from the sale of thyme for essential oil, can be an incentive to increase profits, without affecting the yield of the almond trees. However, the higher costs, both variable and fixed, derived from the greater labour needs for almond crop and from the planting costs of thyme until its entry into production, can compromise the farm margins. Hence, a farm design where alley crops do not compromise the mechanization of almond trees is recommended, thus minimizing the impact on its cost structure in the short term. In addition, it should be noted that this kind of diversification improves soil structure, soil fertility, and reduce erosion, which is expected to have a positive impact on almond yields in the long term.

La sostenibilidad de la diversificación de cultivos ha sido evaluada por su impacto en los resultados financieros de las explotaciones agrícolas. Una finca de almendros de secano, localizada en la Región de Murcia (sudeste de España) se ha diversificado mediante el cultivo intercalado de tomillo entre sus calles. El análisis de los beneficios y costes financieros de la explotación durante tres años pone de manifiesto que los ingresos derivados del cultivo secundario, en este caso de la venta del tomillo para la obtención de aceite esencial, puede suponer un aliciente para incrementar los beneficios, sin que se vea afectado el rendimiento de los almendros. Sin embargo, los mayores costes, tanto variables como fijos, derivados respectivamente de la mayor necesidad de mano de obra para las labores del almendro y de la plantación del tomillo hasta su entrada en producción, pueden comprometer los márgenes de la explotación. Ante esto, se recomienda un diseño de la explotación donde la existencia de cultivos intercalados no comprometa la mecanización del almendro, minimizando así el impacto en su estructura de costes en el corto plazo. Si bien cabe destacar que se ha demostrado que esta diversificación mejora la estructura del suelo y su fertilidad, y reduce la erosión, lo que se espera que tenga un impacto positivo en el rendimiento de los almendros en el largo plazo.

The main activities and investments necessary for launching long matured organic cheese include product development efforts, maturing and storing facilities, fermentation substances and equipment, and search of sales agents e.g. supermarket, specialized cheese shops, public catering institutions. In addition, food safety regulation, packaging, logistics and marketing imply costs. The main part of the costs is linked to changed activities in cheese-making, procurement of (organic) milk and other direct inputs, packaging, customer relationships and marketing, as well as logistics. Despite of organic productions’ existing recognition, more emphasis to the diversifications’ impact to biodiversity+B7 is a potential value adding aspect. It is essential to increase efforts to marketing communication through also internet and social media. They offer significant opportunities at low costs if properly utilised. Thorough communication with retail partners can strengthen their ability to sell the niche products. Standardized product quality is a crucial to maintain value added price. Transparency of the production and production costs can ease some customers’ understanding of the price formation and justify higher price. Local city and public institutions, in charge of organizing catering services, demand also organic products. This may result in steady cash flow and more regular operations in production. Customer group analysis is required to picture the revenue streams. Revenue streams and their volumes differ among customer groups. It is necessary to evaluate the costs of different customer groups: How much efforts and costs should/could be spent on each customer group in order to reach sufficient goal revenue?

Tärkeimmät pitkäkypsytetyn luomujuuston edellyttämät toiminnot ja investoinnit ovat tuotekehitystyöt, kypsytys- ja varastotilat, käymisaineet ja -laitteet sekä myyntiedustajien haku mm. supermarket, erikoistuneet juustokaupat, julkiset ateriapalvelut. Kustannuksia aiheuttavat myös elintarviketurvallisuuden sääntely, pakkaus, logistiikka ja markkinointi. Pääosa kustannuksista liittyy muuttuneisiin toimintoihin juustonvalmistuksessa, (luomu)maidon ja muiden suorien tuotantopanosten hankinnassa, pakkauksissa, asiakassuhteissa ja markkinointissa sekä logistiikassa. Luomutunnustuksen lisäksi biologiseen monimuotoisuuteen kohdistuvan vaikutuksen korostaminen voi tuoda lisäarvoa. Olennaista on panostaa markkinointiviestintään myös internetin ja sosiaalisen median kautta. Ne tarjoavat huomattavia mahdollisuuksia alhaisin kustannuksin, jos niitä käytetään oikein. Keskustelu jälleenmyyjien kanssa voi vahvistaa heidän kykyään myydä niche-tuotteita. Standardoitu tuotteiden laatu on ratkaisevan tärkeää lisäarvohinnan ylläpitämiseksi. Tuotannon ja tuotantokustannusten läpinäkyvyys voi helpottaa joidenkin asiakkaiden ymmärrystä hinnanmuodostuksesta ja perustella korkeampaa hintaa. Paikalliset kaupunki- ja pitopalveluiden järjestämisestä vastaavat julkiset laitokset vaativat myös luomutuotteita. Tämä voi johtaa vakaaseen kassavirtaan ja säännöllisempään tuotantoon. Asiakasryhmäanalyysi on tarpeen tulovirtojen kuvaamiseksi. Tulovirrat ja niiden määrät vaihtelevat asiakasryhmittäin. On tarpeen arvioida eri asiakasryhmien kustannuksia: Kuinka paljon ponnistuksia ja kustannuksia tulisi käyttää kuhunkin asiakasryhmään, jotta saavutetaan riittävä tulo?

Small scale family driven artisan cheese production is based on dairy milk supplied from local farms. The products include yoghurts and fresh cheeses as well as longer matured cheeses. The market niche is based on genuine tastes, no use of additives, and direct customer contacts. The product level diversification supported by farm scale diversification with rapeseed in fodders, with positive impacts on biodiversity at the field level. Use of rapeseed in feeding of cows was evidensed to improve the texture and taste of the cheeses, confirmed by customer feedback. More+B6 yoghurt or cheese is gained out of 1 kg of raw milk if some rapeseed was fed to dairy cows. Improved milk quality and cheese yield also give opportunities to launch new products and variants of the existing ones, e.g. with new flavours. However, marketing communication is crucial. Packaging materials and logistics are already important, but further communication with customers is necessary in increasing transparency of the production process, origin of the inputs, and production costs. This information can ease some customers’ understanding of the price formation and justify higher price. Videos and other information on the products, showing and describing the specific ways of production without additives, and origin of the milk with responsible practices have been presented in the internet and social media accounts. Such materials have been found essential and effective in presenting new versions of the products (new tastes, packaging) for consumers and in internet and in social media as well. Visibility in selected social media channels increased visits on internet-pages and influences sales positively.

Pienimuotoinen artesaanijuustotuotanto perustuu paikallisilta tiloilta hankittavaan maitoon. Tuotteisiin kuuluvat jogurtit ja tuorejuustot sekä pidempään kypsytetyt juustot. Markkinarako perustuu aitoon makuun, lisäaineiden käyttämättömyyteen ja suoriin asiakaskontakteihin. Tuotetason monipuolistamistata tukee lehmien ruokinnan monipuolistaminen rypsin siemenillä. Tällä on myönteisiä vaikutuksia luonnon monimuotoisuuteen peltotasolla. Rypsin käyttö lehmien ruokinnassa parantaa juustojen rakennetta ja makua, mitä vahvistaa asiakaspalaute. Yhdestä kilosta raakamaitoa saadaan enemmän jogurttia tai juustoa, jos rypsiä syötetään lypsylehmille. Maidon laadun ja juustosannon parantuminen antaa myös mahdollisuuden tuoda markkinoille uusia tuotteita ja muunnelmia entisistä, mm. uusia makuja. Markkinointiviestintä on kuitenkin tärkeää. Pakkausmateriaalit ja logistiikka ovat jo tärkeitä, mutta lisäviestintää asiakkaiden kanssa tarvitaan tuotantoprosessin, tuotantopanosten alkuperän ja tuotantokustannusten läpinäkyvyyden lisäämiseksi. Nämä tiedot voivat helpottaa asiakkaiden ymmärrystä hinnanmuodostuksesta ja oikeuttaa korkeamman hinnan. Internetissä ja sosiaalisen median tileillä on esitelty videoita ja muuta tietoa tuotteista, joissa esitellään ja kuvataan erityisiä lisäaineita sisältämättömiä valmistustapoja sekä maidon alkuperää vastuullisin menetelmin. Lisätieto on todettu välttämättömäksi ja tehokkaaksi kun esitellään tuotteista uusia versioita (uudet makut, pakkaukset) kuluttajille sekä internetissä ja sosiaalisessa mediassa. Näkyvyys valituissa sosiaalisen median kanavissa lisäsi kävijöitä nettisivuilla ja vaikutti myyntiin positiivisesti.

In Mediterranean areas, double-annual cropping systems are an interesting alternative to maize monoculture to increase crop diversity and agroecosystem sustainability. In a 2-year experiment, the impact of crop diversification and different nitrogen rates on soil quality parameters and crop performance was studied under flooded irrigated conditions. Compared to the maize monoculture, the diversified systems (pea-maize and barley-maize rotations) increased the soil organic carbon by 15%, that was explained by a higher accumulation of crop residues in soil surface (15-20%). The impact of nitrogen fertilization rates was lower, although the higher rate led to greater properties mainly in the topsoil layer. Regarding crop performance, the double-annual cropping system management was challenging under flooded irrigated conditions entailing crop penalties: the first year, the diversified rotations achieved a 27% lower grain yield than the maize monoculture; and a lower nitrogen use efficiency was observed (40%). Nevertheless, the maize monoculture led to higher accumulation of mineral N in deeper soil layers after maize harvest, thus increasing the risk of nitrate leaching during the fall period compared to the double-annual crops. Therefore, crop diversification enhanced soil health indicators and proved to be an interesting tool to reduce nitrate leaching risk, but proper management practices are needed to maximize its productivity potential under flooded conditions.

En áreas mediterráneas, los dobles cultivos son una interesante alternativa frente al monocultivo de maíz para aumentar la diversidad y la sostenibilidad de los agrosistemas. En un experimento de 2 años fue estudiado el impacto de la diversificación de cultivos y de diferentes dosis de nitrogeno sobre varios parámetros de calidad del suelo, así como su impacto en la productividad, en sistemas de riego por inundación. En comparación con el monocultivo de maíz, los sistemas diversificados (rotaciones de guisante-maíz y cebada-maíz) aumentaron el carbono orgánico del suelo en un 15%, lo cual fue debido a una mayor acumulación de residuos en la superficie del suelo (15-20%). El impacto de las dosis nitrogenadas fue menor, aunque la dosis más elevada condujo a mejores propiedades del suelo principalmente en la capa más superficial. Con respecto al impacto en la productividad, el manejo de los dobles cultivos supuso un desafío bajo condiciones de riego por inundación ya que se observaron penalizaciones en los rendimientos: el primer año, las rotaciones de cultivos mostraron un rendimiento en grano 27% inferior al obtenido con el sistema de monocultivo, así como una eficiencia de uso del nitrógeno un 40% inferior. Sin embargo, el monocultivo de maíz condujo a una mayor acumulación de nitrógeno mineral en los horizontes más profundos del suelo tras el verano, lo que aumentaría el riesgo de lavado de nitratos durante el posterior período de barbecho. Por tanto, la diversificación de cultivos mejoró los indicadores de salud del suelo y mostró ser una herramienta interesante para reducir el riesgo de lixiviación de nitratos. Sin embargo, son imprescindibles unas prácticas de manejo adecuadas bajo estas condiciones que permitan maximizar su productividad.

In semiarid Mediterranean conditions, introducing crop rotations has proven to be useful for enhancing the cropping systems sustainability. An increase of crop diversification not only has been demonstrated to have a positive effect on soil quality, but also on crop yields. During 3 years, a trial based on different cropping systems was conducted in NE Spain: two crop rotations winter cereal-legume with no-tillage, no-tillage cereal monoculture and conventional tillage cereal monoculture. In the first 10 cm of soil depth, a higher soil microbial biomass and B-glucosidase, dehydrogenase and protease enzymes activity was observed in no-tillage and crop rotations compared to conventional tillage. The greater amount of residues over soil resulting from no-tillage favored soil water storage as well as increased the nutrients availability in the soil. In addition, a range of 38-16% less total nitrogen content was found in conventional tillage compared to the other cropping systems, which also explains the lower biological activity. An improvement in soil structure was also observed in no-tillage, approximately 24% more water-stable macroaggregates, compared to conventional tillage. The improved soil quality observed under conservation agriculture practices and more diversificated systems demonstrate that these practices have a potential for greater sustainability of cropping systems. However, further long-term research is needed, the effect of crop diversification on yield and soil quality, as well as to improve the selection of more adequate diversificated agrosystems adapted to the semiarid Mediterranean area.

En las condiciones mediterráneas semiáridas, la introducción de rotaciones de cultivos ha demostrado ser útil para mejorar la sostenibilidad de los sistemas de cultivo. El aumento de la diversificación de cultivos no sólo ha demostrado tener un efecto positivo en la calidad del suelo, sino también en el rendimiento de los cultivos. Durante 3 años, se llevó a cabo un ensayo basado en diferentes sistemas de cultivo en el NE de España: dos rotaciones de cultivo cereal-leguminosa en siembra directa, un monocultivo de cereal en siembra directa y un monocultivo de cereal con laboreo convencional. En los primeros 10 cm del suelo, se observó una mayor biomasa microbiana del suelo y actividad de las enzimas B-glucosidasa, deshidrogenasa y proteasa en siembra directa y en sistemas diversificados a comparación del laboreo convencional. La mayor cantidad de residuos sobre el suelo derivada de la siembra directa favoreció la acumulación de agua en el suelo, así como una mayor disponibilidad de nutrientes. Además, se encontró un entre un 38-16% menos de contenido total de nitrógeno en el laboreo convencional en comparación con los otros sistemas de cultivo, lo que explica la menor actividad biológica. También se observó una mejora en la estructura del suelo en la siembra directa, aproximadamente un 24% más de macroagregados estables al agua, respecto del laboreo convencional. La mejora de la calidad del suelo observada bajo los sistemas basados agricultura de conservación y con una mayor diversificación demuestra que estas prácticas tienen gran potencial para una mayor sostenibilidad de los sistemas de cultivo. Sin embargo, es necesario seguir investigando, especialmente a largo plazo, para ver el efecto de la diversificación de cultivos en el rendimiento de los cultivos y en la calidad del suelo, así como para lograr sistemas diversificados más adecuados y adaptados a la zona mediterránea semiárida.

Crop diversification contributes to agro-environmental sustainability of intensive farming systems. Among soil properties, soil organic carbon (SOC) represents a key feature, useful to evaluate long-term sustainability of cropping systems under climate change scenario. Aiming to assess how diversified cropping systems can influence SOC content, the model ECOSSE was run to predict SOC change after 30 years of crop diversification, compared to the same period of monocropping in a case study located in Northern Italy. The model was first run using point measured data, then the point model outputs were interpolated at field scale using Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) algorithm. Since the evaluation of crop diversification effect at landscape scale is necessary to better guide agricultural planning, point model results were also interpolated at landscape scale using a machine learning approach. The spatial framework for this upscaling operation was made up of land units with relatively homogenous conditions (soil, climate, and management). The proposed procedure, bringing together a model for simulating C dynamics with machine learning approach, represents a valuable interpolation tool to extend the results from field extent to landscape scale. This procedure has proven to be effective in highlighting the positive effect of crop diversification with legumes to reduce SOC losses in the long-term at different scales, compared to the monocropping system, used as control.

La diversificazione colturale contribuisce alla sostenibilità agroambientale dei sistemi agricoli intensivi. Tra le proprietà del suolo, il carbonio organico (SOC) rappresenta una caratteristica fondamentale, utile per valutare la sostenibilità a lungo termine dei sistemi colturali, in uno scenario di cambiamento climatico. Con l'obiettivo di valutare come i sistemi colturali diversificati possono influenzare il contenuto SOC, in un caso di studio situato nel nord Italia, è stato utilizzato il modello ECOSSE per prevedere il cambiamento SOC dopo 30 anni di diversificazione delle colture, rispetto allo stesso periodo di monocoltura. Il modello è stato fatto girare utilizzando i dati puntuali misurati; quindi, i risultati puntuali del modello sono stati interpolati a scala di campo, utilizzando l'algoritmo di ponderazione della distanza inversa (IDW). Poiché la valutazione dell'effetto di diversificazione colturale a scala territoriale è utile per favorire la pianificazione agricola, i risultati puntuali del modello sono stati interpolati anche a scala territoriale, utilizzando un approccio di machine learning. Per passare dalla scala puntuale a quella territoriale, l’unità di terra di riferimento deve presentare condizioni relativamente omogenee (suolo, clima e gestione). Questa procedura si è dimostrata efficace nell'evidenziare l'effetto positivo della diversificazione colturale con le leguminose nel ridurre le perdite di SOC nel lungo periodo a diverse scale, rispetto al sistema monocolturale, utilizzato come controllo.

The case study (CS4) carried out in Spain involved the implementation of three crop diversifications in olive groves: Saffron, Oats and Vetch rotation and Lavandin. As a control area, rainfed olive monoculture was established. With respect to the olive crop yield in the diversified plots, these crop diversifications were generally not beneficial in our case study. With respect to the olive crop yield, if we look at the yield in the 2018/19 season, it was about 4000 kilograms per hectare in both the olive monoculture plot and the diversified plots. However, in the 2019/20 campaign, both for the main crop (olive tree) and for the diversifications, there was a drop in the yield due to the climatic conditions of that year with low rainfall and high temperatures, which caused a high loss of olives, especially in the diversifications. Finally, in the 2020/21 season, an increase in yields can be observed with respect to the previous year, especially in the olive monoculture, which was even higher than in 2018/19, but in the diversifications it was not as high. Therefore, the implementation of these diversifications, in the first years, would not generate benefits to the farmer, so we cannot recommend the implementation of these diversifications in areas with the conditions of the CS4 as the development and maintenance of the same is very complicated, therefore the optimal results would not be observed at least in the first years of implementation, generating higher costs than the benefits obtained.

El estudio de caso (CS4) realizado en España se ha llevado a cabo con la implantación de tres diversificaciones de cultivo en olivar que fueron Azafrán, rotación de Avena y Veza y Lavandín. Como zona de control se estableció el monocultivo de olivar de secano. Con respecto a la producción de cosecha del olivar en las parcelas diversificadas, estas diversificaciones de cultivos no resultaron generalmente beneficiosas en nuestro caso de estudio. con respecto a la cosecha de olivar, si observamos el rendimiento en la campaña 2018/19, este fue de unos 4000 kilogramos por hectárea tanto en la parcela de monocultivo de olivar como en las parcelas de las diversificaciones. Sin embargo, en la campaña 2019/20, tanto para el cultivo principal (olivo) como para las diversificaciones, se experimenta un descenso del rendimiento debido a las condiciones climáticas de ese año con escasas lluvias y elevadas temperaturas, que causaron una perdida elevada de la aceituna, especialmente en las diversificaciones. Por ultimo en la campaña 2020/21, se puede observar un aumento del rendimiento con respecto al año anterior, especialmente en el monocultivo de olivar llegando a ser más elevado incluso que en el año 2018/19, pero en las diversificaciones no fue tan elevado. Por tanto, la implantación de estas diversificaciones, en los primeros años, no generaría beneficios al agricultor, por no que no podemos recomendar la implantación de estas diversificaciones en zonas con las condiciones del CS4 ya que el desarrollo y mantenimiento de las mismas es muy complicado, por esto los resultados óptimos no se observarían al menos en los primeros años de implantación, generando costes mayores a los beneficios obtenidos.

The case study (CS4) carried out in Spain involved the implementation of three crop diversifications in olive groves: Saffron, Oats and Vetch rotation and Lavandin. The control area was established as a monoculture of rainfed olive groves. The impact of diversifications on biodiversity was generally beneficial in our case study. With regard to ground cover, between 2019 and 2020, there has been an increase in both the olive monoculture plot and the diversification plots, with the highest percentage of ground cover in the saffron plot, Next, the highest percentage of cover is obtained in the oats and vetch rotation plot and then in the lavandin plot, finally, in the olive monoculture plot, the lowest percentages of cover are obtained, this is due to the fact that the climatic and soil conditions are so deficient that they prevent the growth of weeds. With regard to the total number of earthworms, in 2021, there has been an exponential and high increase in the number of earthworms in the diversification plots, especially in the Saffron plot, in addition, it is worth highlighting the increase in the Lavandin plot, where in 2018 none had been found, this shows how the effect of the diversifications for the soils and the macrofauna of the area are favourable and beneficial, causing an increase in the biodiversity of species in these soils. Therefore, this crop diversification in olive groves is recommended to improve both soil quality and microbial activity and biodiversity, and its implementation by the farmer would be feasible from the point of view of these measured parameters.

El estudio de caso (CS4) realizado en España se ha llevado a cabo con la implantación de tres diversificaciones de cultivo en olivar que fueron Azafrán, rotación de Avena y Veza y Lavandín. Como zona de control se estableció el monocultivo de olivar de secano. El impacto de las diversificaciones en la biodiversidad, ha sido generalmente beneficioso en nuestro caso de estudio. Con respecto a la cobertura del suelo, entre 2019 y 2020, se ha producido un aumento de la misma tanto en la parcela de monocultivo de olivar como en las parcelas de diversificaciones, acentuándose y siendo más elevada para la parcela del azafrán, a continuación el mayor porcentaje de cobertura lo obtenemos en la parcela de rotación de avena y veza y después en la parcela de lavandín, finalmente en la parcela de monocultivo de olivar, se obtienen los porcentajes de cobertura más bajos, esto es debido a que las condiciones climáticas y del suelo son tan deficientes que impiden el crecimiento de hierva. Con respecto al número total de lombrices, en 2021, se ha producido un aumento exponencial y elevado de dicho número en las parcelas de las diversificaciones, especialmente en la parcela de Azafrán, además, cabe destacar el aumento en la parcela de lavandín, donde en 2018 no se había encontrado ninguna, esto muestra como el efecto de las diversificaciones para los suelos y la macrofauna de la zona son favorables y beneficiosas, provocando un aumento de la biodiversidad de especies en estos suelos. Por tanto esta diversificacion de cultivos en olivar es recomendable para mejorar tanto la calidad del suelo como la actividad microbioana y biodiversidad, y sería viable su implantación por el agricultor desde el punto de vista de estos parámetros medidos.

The case study (CS4) carried out in Spain involved the implementation of three crop diversifications in olive groves: Saffron, Oats and Vetch rotation and Lavandin. As a control area, rainfed olive monoculture was established. The use of diversified cropping systems in the olive grove alleys during the study period showed an increase in soil total organic carbon (TOC) concentrations and soil water content at wilting point (SWW). There was also a positive trend with respect to erosion rates in the diversification plots, especially in the crocus plot. In terms of GHG emissions, the general trend was to reduce and contribute to lower emissions compared to olive monoculture. However, the effect of diversifications was not effective when assessing soil water content at field capacity (SWFC), true field moisture content (FMa), water infiltration rate and soil aggregate distribution, the values obtained were poor when comparing monoculture with diversification plots. This is due to the climatology of the Mediterranean area, the excess of rabbits in the study area and the highly mechanised management to which they were subjected before the implementation of the diversifications, conditioning the experimental development during the years of study and obtaining some results that were not as expected. Therefore, more years of implementation would be necessary to observe with certainty the efficiency of the implementation of these diversifications for the farmer, since in the current results the benefit would be lower than the cost of implementation.

El estudio de caso (CS4) realizado en España se ha llevado a cabo con la implantación de tres diversificaciones de cultivo en olivar que fueron Azafrán, rotación de Avena y Veza y Lavandín. Como zona de control se estableció el monocultivo de olivar de secano. El uso de sistemas de cultivo diversificados en los callejones del olivar durante el periodo de estudio mostró un aumento de las concentraciones de carbono orgánico total del suelo (COT) y del contenido de agua del suelo en el punto de marchitamiento (SWW). También hubo una tendencia positiva con respecto a las tasas de erosión en las parcelas de diversificación, especialmente en la parcela de azafran. En cuanto a las emisiones de GEI, la tendencia general fue la de reducir y contribuir a una menor emisión en comparación con el monocultivo del olivo. Sin embargo, el efecto de las diversificaciones no fue efectivo al evaluar el contenido de agua del suelo a capacidad de campo (SWFC), el contenido real de humedad en el campo (FMa), la tasa de infiltración de agua y la distribución de los agregados del suelo, los valores obtenidos fueron pobres al comparar el monocultivo con las parcelas de diversificación. esto es debido a la climatología de la zona mediterránea, el exceso de conejos en la zona de estudio y el manejo altamente mecanizado al que estaban sometidos antes de la implantación de las diversificaciones, condicionando el desarrollo experimental durante los años de estudio y obteniendo algunos resultados que no eran los esperados. Por tanto, se necesitarían más años de implantación para observar con certeza de la eficacia de la implantación de estas diversificaciones para el agricultor, ya que en los resultados actuales el beneficio sería menor al coste de la implantación.

The case study (CS4) in Spain was carried out with the implementation of three crop diversifications in olive groves, which were Saffron, Oats and Vetch rotation and Lavandin. As a control area, rainfed olive monoculture was established. With regard to the production of the different crop diversifications, they have not been generally beneficial in our case study. Firstly, the diversification concerning lavender, has been growing and improving from 2019 to 2021, in 2019 the plants were dried due to the climatic conditions of the area and in 2020 they were sown again, in 2021 we found low plants that still did not have a fruitful production due to the conditions of the Mediterranean region and the characteristics of these soils the growth of these plants is slow and difficult. Secondly, in the diversification concerning the rotation of Oats and Vetch, in 2019 and 2021 no harvest was obtained due to the climatic conditions of the area, with high temperatures and low rainfall, however, in 2020 a fruitful harvest was obtained and a vegetation cover that was as expected. Thirdly, in the diversification concerning Saffron, in 2019 and 2020 no harvest was obtained due to the fact that the rabbits did not allow the crop to grow, however, in the latter year, we managed to contain the action of the rabbits and the plant was able to develop, however, in the first year of development, no flower or yield was obtained. Therefore, based on the results obtained, these diversifications would be costly for the farmer in an area with conditions similar to those of the study, and their development and productivity would be complicated, without generating benefits for the farmer.

El estudio de caso (CS4) realizado en España se ha llevado a cabo con la implantación de tres diversificaciones de cultivo en olivar que fueron Azafrán, rotación de Avena y Veza y Lavandín. Como zona de control se estableció el monocultivo de olivar de secano. Con respecto a la producción de las diferentes diversificaciones de cultivos no han resultado generalmente beneficiosas en nuestro caso de estudio. En primer lugar, la diversificación referente a la lavanda, ha ido creciendo y mejorando desde 2019 hasta 2021, en 2019 las plantas se secaron debido a las condiciones climáticas de la zona y en 2020 se volvieron a sembrar, en 2021 nos encontramos con unas plantas de bajo porte que aun no tenían una producción fructífera debido a las condiciones de la región mediterránea y a las características de estos suelos el crecimiento de las mismas es lento y dificultoso. En segundo lugar, en la diversificación referente a la rotación de Avena y Veza, en 2019 y 2021 no se obtuvo cosecha debido a las condiciones climáticas de la zona, con altas temperaturas y baja cantidad de lluvia, sin embargo, en 2020 se obtuvo una cosecha fructífera y una cubierta vegetal que era la esperada. En tercer lugar, en la diversificación referente al Azafrán, en 2019 y 2020 no se obtuvo cosecha debido a que los conejos no dejaban crecer el cultivo, sin embargo en este ultimo año, hemos conseguido contener la acción de los conejos y la planta ha podido desarrollarse, no obstante, en el primer año de desarrollo la no se ha obtenido flor ni rendimiento. Por tanto, en base a los resultados obtenidos, estas diversificaciones serían costosas para el agricultor en una zona con condiciones similares a las de estudio, siendo complicado el desarrollo y productividad de las mismas, sin generar beneficios a este.

Intensive agriculture caused noticeable negative impacts on agroecosystem services, while the adoption of crop diversification and low-input management strategies can minimize such impacts. Thus, it is important to evaluate the effects of diversification strategies on soil quality and cropping systems performance using a set of agro-environmental indicators based on a fuzzy logic approach that can be used as useful tool to define local solutions for re-designing intensive cropping systems. Data were collected from three long-term field experiments (LTEs) mostly oriented on cereal-based and vegetables cropping systems, located in Spain and Italy. A set of simple (Soil Organic Content, Bulk density and Yield) and complex indicators (Available water capacity, Nutrition Index and Crop Diversification index) was selected and aggregated into a more comprehensive Integrated Sustainability Index, in order to assess in a wide and synthetic perspective the cropping system management effect. The selected indicators highlighted that implementing crop diversification and low-input strategies enhanced soil quality. In Mediterranean Basin crop diversification represents a promising strategy to achieve more sustainable cropping system management. In this context, the diversified strategies maintained yields stability and favored the increase of soil organic carbon, total nitrogen, available phosphorus, and bulk density, in all the three LTEs compared to conventional ones.

L'agricoltura intensiva ha causato notevoli impatti negativi sui servizi dell'agroecosistema, mentre l'adozione della diversificazione delle colture e delle strategie di gestione a basso input può ridurli al minimo. Pertanto, è importante valutare gli effetti della diversificazione sulla qualità del suolo e sui sistemi colturali utilizzando indicatori agroambientali basati su un approccio di logica fuzzy. Tali indicatori possono essere uno strumento utile per definire soluzioni locali per ridisegnare i sistemi colturali intensivi. I dati derivano da tre esperimenti a lungo termine (LTE), orientati su sistemi colturali cerealicolo-industriali di ortive, situati in Spagna e in Italia. Sono stati selezionati indicatori semplici (ad esempio, contenuto di carbonio organico del suolo, densità apparente e resa) e complessi (ad esempio, acqua disponibile, indice di nutrizione e indice di diversificazione delle colture) che sono stati aggregati in un indice integrato di sostenibilità più completo, per valutare, in una prospettiva ampia e sintetica, l’effetto della gestione sul sistema colturale considerato. Gli indicatori selezionati hanno evidenziato che l'attuazione della diversificazione delle colture e delle strategie a basso input ha migliorato la qualità del suolo. Nel bacino del Mediterraneo, la diversificazione delle colture rappresenta una strategia promettente per ottenere una gestione più sostenibile del sistema colturale. In questo contesto, le strategie diversificate sono state in grado di mantenere la stabilità delle rese e hanno favorito l'aumento del carbonio organico del suolo, dell'azoto totale, del fosforo disponibile e della densità apparente, in tutti e tre gli LTE rispetto a quelli convenzionali.

Intensive agriculture is recognized as one of the most important agricultural systems that negatively influence the agro-environment. In Italy, to improve the understanding of barriers and opportunities for implementing farming practices and crop diversification strategies in intensive rainfed and irrigated cereal-based cropping systems, fifty stakeholders (e.g., farmers, technical agricultural advisors, field technical officers, and researchers in agriculture) were interviewed. A multi-criteria decision analysis was used to evaluate the stakeholders’ perceptions on the barriers and opportunities for sustainable farming practices and crop diversification strategies in Mediterranean cereal-based systems. The most important agro-environmental problem identified by the stakeholders was the loss of profitability, associated with the risk of farm abandonment. Conversely, practices such as minimum tillage, maintenance of vegetation covers, and use of green manure were identified as the most adequate and effective practices to be adopted in the study areas. Crop rotation and legumes were the most adequate diversification strategies selected for the intensive rainfed cereal-based cropping systems, while crop rotations and multiple cropping were selected as the most appropriate alternatives for irrigated production. Findings highlight that crops selected by the stakeholders for the diversification are commonly cultivated as monoculture and are adapted in the study areas. The main weakness is the limited knowledge of conventional farmers on crop diversification. These results can be useful to support the planning of agricultural policies at different levels.

L'agricoltura intensiva rappresenta uno dei più importanti sistemi agricoli che influenzano negativamente l'agroambiente. In Italia, per migliorare la comprensione delle barriere e delle opportunità per l'attuazione delle pratiche agricole e delle strategie di diversificazione delle colture nei sistemi colturali cerealicolo-industriali in asciutta o irrigati, cinquanta stakeholders (ad es. agricoltori, consulenti tecnici agricoli, funzionari tecnici e ricercatori in agricoltura) sono stati intervistati. Un'analisi multi-criteriale è stata usata per valutare le risposte degli stakeholder. Il problema agroambientale più importante che è stato individuato è associato alla perdita di redditività e al rischio di abbandono dell'azienda agricola. Per contro, pratiche quali la minima lavorazione del terreno, il mantenimento delle coperture vegetali e l'utilizzo del sovescio sono state considerate le pratiche più adeguate da adottare nelle aree di studio. Gli avvicendamenti e le leguminose sono stati identificati come le strategie più adeguate per i sistemi intensivi cerealicolo-industriale. Di contro. Gli avvicendamenti e le colture multiple sono stati selezionati come valide alternative da adottare nei sistemi intensivi irrigui. I risultati evidenziano che le colture scelte dagli stakeholders per la diversificazione colturale sono coltivate come monocoltura e si adattano all’area di studio. Il principale punto debole è rappresentato dalla scarsa conoscenza degli agricoltori convenzionali sulla diversificazione delle colture. Questi risultati possono essere utili per supportare la pianificazione delle politiche agricole a diversi livelli.

Horizon2020 Diverfarming project was funded in 2017 to develop and apply sustainable farm and agribusiness management strategies. In Italy, the project focused on intensive cropping systems characterized by monocropping of cereals and short rotation of wheat/processing tomato. In Po Valley (Northern Italy), the following diversification strategies were tested: introduction of industrial pea in wheat/processing tomato rotation and tomato transplanting after pea harvest as second crop as multiple cropping strategy as well as the application of anaerobic digestate, in combination with mineral fertilization. In Capitanata, the introduction of a legume (field bean terminated as green manure) in the wheat/processing tomato rotation combined with the 20% reduction of irrigation rate (IRR80%) during the tomato growing season were tested. In both pilot areas, soil fertility was influenced by crop diversification strategies, both in terms of nutrient availability and functional microbial biodiversity. In the Po Valley, soil greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions were higher in autumn, after the application of the anerobic digestate and during the tomato growing season, after irrigation. In the Capitanata, the GHG emissions during tomato growing season were estimated with the Life Cycle Assessment. Tomato in rotation with wheat and field beans under the application of IRR80% reduced GHG emissions by 15% compared to the non-diversified system. In economic terms, the average gross margin per hectare of the diversified system was higher compared to the non-diversified systems because of the supply chain agreements, favoring the introduction of sustainable diversification strategies by farmers.

Il progetto Horizon2020 Diverfarming è stato finanziato nel 2017 per sviluppare e applicare strategie sostenibili di gestione dell’azienda agricola e dell’agribusiness. In Italia, il progetto si è focalizzato su sistemi colturali intensivi caratterizzati da monosuccessioni di cereali e rotazioni brevi frumento/pomodoro da industria. In Pianura Padana, è stata prevista l’introduzione del pisello da industria nella rotazione frumento/pomodoro, del pomodoro in secondo raccolto dopo il pisello e l’applicazione di digestato anaerobico, in combinazione con la fertilizzazione minerale. Nella Capitanata, è stata prevista l’introduzione di una leguminosa (favino da sovescio) nella rotazione frumento/pomodoro e la riduzione costante del 20% dell’apporto irriguo (IRR80%) durante il ciclo colturale del pomodoro. In entrambi gli areali, la fertilità dei suoli è stata influenzata dalle pratiche di diversificazione colturale, sia in termini di disponibilità di nutrienti che di biodiversità funzionale microbica. In Pianura padana, le emissioni di gas serra (GHG) dal suolo sono state più elevate nel periodo autunnale, dopo la distribuzione del digestato anerobico, e durante il ciclo del pomodoro, dopo l’irrigazione. Nella Capitanata, le emissioni di GHG del pomodoro sono state stimate con il Life Cycle Assessment. Il pomodoro in rotazione con frumento e favino con l’applicazione di IRR80% ha ridotto le emissioni del 15% rispetto al sistema non diversificato. In termini economici, il reddito medio lordo ad ettaro del sistema diversificato supera quello dei sistemi non diversificati, grazie all’attivazione di accordi di filiera che favoriscono l’introduzione di strategie di diversificazione sostenibili da parte degli agricoltori.

Intensification of agricultural systems and simplification of value chains have caused agro-environmental problems that reduced ecosystem services. In this context, it is well known the crucial role played by crop diversification and legumes in the new sustainable agricultural models. Therefore, in both Italy and Europe it is necessary to re-introduce legumes in crop succession because of their environmental benefits other than the availability of vegetable proteins for human consumption. In this context, within the H2020-DIVERFARMING project, a three-year trial was set up in three private farms in the Po Valley (Northern Italy) aiming at maintaining crop productivity and reducing the agro-environmental impacts caused by the intensive arable land use of the area. In a typical wheat-tomato rotation, industrial pea (legume) for food was introduced to increase soil organic carbon sequestration and improve soil N availability for the next crop. Over the three-year, the average pea production was 4 t/ha. Significantly higher crop yields (+ 17%) were observed in 2020 compared to 2018-2019 period. The lower crop yields observed in the 2018-2019 period are mainly caused by the adverse weather conditions that negatively influenced the pea growth during the pod formation. Nevertheless, the introduction of industrial pea for food in the wheat-tomato rotation as crop diversification strategy ensured good yield levels and allowed to increase the production of vegetable proteins. Moreover, it extended the range of products available for consumers as well as the profitability of farmers.

L’intensificazione dei sistemi agricoli e la semplificazione delle filiere produttive hanno causato problemi agro-ambientali con riduzione dei servizi ecosistemici. In questo contesto, è ben noto il ruolo cruciale che la diversificazione colturale e le leguminose svolgono nei nuovi modelli sostenibili di agricoltura. Pertanto, in Italia e in Europa, è auspicabile il rilancio delle leguminose che oltre ai benefici ambientali favoriscono l’aumento della disponibilità di proteine vegetali per il consumo umano. Nell’ambito del progetto H2020-DIVERFARMING è stata impostata una sperimentazione triennale presso tre aziende della pianura padana con l’obiettivo di mantenere adeguati livelli produttivi e di ridurre gli impatti agro-ambientali, causati dai seminativi intensivi tipici della zona. In una tipica rotazione frumento-pomodoro, è stata introdotto il pisello da industria (leguminosa), per aumentare il sequestro del carbonio organico e migliorare la disponibilità di N nel terreno per la coltura successiva. Le produzioni medie del pisello sono state di 4 t/ha. Le produzioni significativamente più elevate (+17%) sono state osservate nel 2020, rispetto al biennio 2018-2019. Le minori rese del biennio sono ascrivibili alle avverse condizioni meteorologiche che hanno influenzato negativamente la coltura nel periodo di formazione e sviluppo dei baccelli. Ciononostante, l’introduzione del pisello da industria nella rotazione frumento-pomodoro come strategia di diversificazione colturale ha garantito buoni livelli produttivi e ha consentito di aumentare la produzione di proteine vegetali, andando ad ampliare l’offerta dei prodotti a disposizione del consumatore finale e la redditività degli agricoltori.

Crop diversification practices adopted in the H2020-DIVERFARMING project falls within the objectives of the Green Deal Plan of the European Commission. In Italy, three case studies were set up in the Po Valley (Northern Italy) and one in the Capitanata (Southern Italy) aiming at maintaining adequate crop yield levels and reducing the agri-environmental impacts of intensive systems, characterized by autumn-winter and summer cereals as monoculture or in short-rotation with summer crops such as processing tomato. In the Po Valley, industrial pea (leguminous) for food and processing tomato after pea harvest was introduced in the wheat-tomato rotation as multiple crops. In the Capitanata, a legume (field bean as cover crop terminated as green manure) was introduced in the wheat-tomato rotation as crop diversification practice. Moreover, a constant reduction of 20% of the irrigation amount was applied during the tomato crop cycle. Crop diversification provided crop benefits compared to conventional management, without limiting quality production. The rotation adopted in the Po Valley increases the income for farmers, when industrial pea is sowed within the first ten days of March because it does not compromise the yield of tomato planted as second crop after pea harvest. In the Capitanata, the reduction in the irrigation amount allowed a higher marketable tomato production due to the greater water use efficiency. These aspects showed a positive effect on the economic and agro-environmental sustainability of farms located in semi-arid regions where water saving should be the main measure for irrigation planning.

L’adozione di pratiche di diversificazione colturale previste nel progetto H2020-DIVERFARMING rientra negli obiettivi del Piano Green Deal della Commissione europea. In Italia, sono stati impostati tre casi studio in Pianura Padana e uno nella Capitanata con l’obiettivo di mantenere adeguati livelli produttivi e di ridurre gli impatti agro-ambientali, causati dai seminativi intensivi, caratterizzati da monocolture di cereali autunno-vernini ed estivi e rotazioni brevi frumento-pomodoro da industria.

In Pianura Padana, è stata introdotto il pisello da industria (leguminosa) nella rotazione frumento-pomodoro e pomodoro in secondo raccolto dopo il pisello da industria. Nella Capitanata, è stata inserita una leguminosa (favino da sovescio) nella rotazione frumento-pomodoro ed è stata applicata una riduzione costante del 20% dell’apporto irriguo durante il ciclo colturale del pomodoro.

La diversificazione colturale ha comportato benefici produttivi rispetto alla gestione tradizionale, senza penalizzare la qualità del prodotto. La rotazione adottata in Pianura Padana aumenta il reddito degli agricoltori, quando la semina del pisello da industria è effettuata entro la prima decade di marzo, per non compromettere le potenzialità produttive del pomodoro in secondo raccolto.

In Capitanata, il minor apporto irriguo si è tradotto in una maggiore produzione commerciabile del pomodoro, per effetto della maggiore efficienza dell’uso dell’acqua irrigua. Questi aspetti si riflettono positivamente sulla redditività aziendale e sulla sostenibilità ambientale degli ambienti semi-aridi dove il risparmio idrico dovrebbe rappresentare il principale criterio alla base della programmazione dell’irrigazione.

A short term experiment was implemented in an organic 10 years fodder crop farm. We set up a 3 year experiment. Treatments were mays with beans as multicrop (in separated rows), mays with beans as intercrop (in the same row), and only mays as monocrop. Between the crop seasons, cover crops were also stablished during winter: triticale with peas, soranigol (a mix of cover crops) and yellow mustard. Every year we assessed chemical, physical and biological conditions, as well the yield biomass. A conventional - in transition farm joined the experiment after seeing the results obtained from the first years of experimentation in the organic farm, and the owners implemented the same treatments in their fodder farm. At the end of the experimentation we observed in the organic farm no significant differences among organic carbon along the years, however those organic carbon values were significant higher than in the conventional neighbour in transition farm; soil total nitrogen and total phosphorus increased during the years of experimentation, nitrates in soil decreased significantly on the second year under the intercropping treatment; plant yield, and protein in plants also increased along the years, and they were not significant different to those produced in the conventional farm; earthworms biomass increased under the intercrop treatment significantly compared with the monocrop treatment. As a final message, we can conclude that diversification is important for the production of fodder crops, and in particular with the intercalation of green manures during winter. These type of intercropping helps the farmer to decrease expenses related with the purchase of extra food for the cows.

Een experiment op korte termijn werd uitgevoerd op een biologische boerderij met 10 jaar voedergewassen. We hebben een driejarig experiment opgezet. De behandelingen waren: bonen met mays als meerjarig gewas (in afzonderlijke rijen), bonen met mays als tussengewas (in dezelfde rij), en alleen mays als monocrop. Tussen de teeltseizoenen door werden in de winter ook dekgewassen gestekt: triticale met erwten, soranigol (een mengsel van dekgewassen) en gele mosterd. Elk jaar beoordeelden we de chemische, fysische en biologische omstandigheden, evenals de opbrengst biomassa. Een conventioneel landbouwbedrijf dat zich in een overgangsfase bevond, sloot zich bij het experiment aan nadat het de resultaten van de eerste jaren van het experiment op het biologische landbouwbedrijf had gezien, en de eigenaars voerden dezelfde behandelingen uit op hun veevoederbedrijf. Aan het eind van het experiment zagen we in het biologische landbouwbedrijf geen significante verschillen in organische koolstof in de loop der jaren, maar die waarden waren significant hoger dan in het conventionele buurbedrijf in de overgangsfase; de totale hoeveelheid stikstof en totale hoeveelheid fosfor in de bodem nam toe gedurende de jaren van het experiment, en de nitraten in de bodem daalden significant in het tweede jaar onder de intercropping-behandeling; de opbrengst van planten en eiwit in planten nam ook toe in de loop der jaren, en ze verschilden niet significant van die geproduceerd in het conventionele bedrijf; de biomassa van regenwormen nam significant toe onder de intercropping-behandeling in vergelijking met de monocrop-behandeling. Tot slot kunnen we concluderen dat diversificatie belangrijk is voor de productie van voedergewassen, en vooral met de intercalatie van groenbemesters tijdens de winter. Dit soort van intercropping helpt de landbouwer om de uitgaven voor de aankoop van extra voer voor de koeien te drukken.

One of the main farmers concerns nowadays, apart from nitrogen emissions, is to have a healthy soil. We know that an easy way to identify whether a soil is healthy or has a healthy condition, is by assessing the abundance, biomass and diversity of soil invertebrates, especially earthworms. Thus, in the Diverfarming project we evaluated long term fodder and potatoes crops, systems under organic and conventional management, systems with diversified crop rotation, and systems with non diversified crop rotations; and we found after assessing earthworms in all those crops, that earthworms diversity and abundance is above average high (200-400 ind.m2, 5-6 species) in systems under long-term diversified organic crops as fodder crop with rotation grass-mais, triticale with peas, soranigol (mix of cover crop plants), or crop potatoes with more than 20 years as organic with rotation of oat, coliflower, clover, celeriac, phacelia. Those abundances were from 4 to 10 times higher than those found in the conventional crops with less or non rotations. Important to mention that those earthworm rich systems had also the highest contents of organic matter, very important for crop yield.

Een van de belangrijkste punten waarover landbouwers zich tegenwoordig zorgen maken, afgezien van de stikstofuitstoot, is een gezonde bodem. We weten dat een gemakkelijke manier om vast te stellen of een bodem gezond is of een gezonde conditie heeft, de beoordeling is van de abundantie, biomassa en diversiteit van ongewervelde bodemdieren, in het bijzonder regenwormen. Daarom hebben we in het Diverfarming-project langjarige voeder- en aardappelgewassen geëvalueerd, systemen onder biologisch en conventioneel beheer, systemen met gediversifieerde gewasrotatie en systemen met niet-gediversifieerde gewasrotatie; en we hebben na beoordeling van de regenwormen in al die gewassen vastgesteld dat de diversiteit en abundantie van regenwormen bovengemiddeld hoog is (200-400 ind. m2, 5-6 soorten) in systemen met langdurig gediversifieerde biologische gewassen als voedergewas met rotatie gras-mais, triticale met erwten, soranigol (mengsel van bedekkingsgewassen), of aardappelgewassen met meer dan 20 jaar als biologisch gewas met rotatie van haver, bloemkool, klaver, knolselderij, phacelia. Die abundanties waren 4 tot 10 keer hoger dan die gevonden in de conventionele gewassen met minder of geen rotatie. Belangrijk om te vermelden is dat deze regenwormrijke systemen ook de hoogste gehalten aan organische stof hadden, wat zeer belangrijk is voor de gewasopbrengst.

A case study in Finland has been under diversified cereal and forage crop rotations since 2001, using leys and legumes in crop rotation, manure in fertilization and low input organic cultivation measures without pesticides and synthetic fertilizers. Three diversified crop rotations were conducted in this case study. The control crop rotation was in cereal rotation with chemical fertilizers and pesticides. There were clear benefits as regards to soil quality in all diversification options: they maintained well the soil carbon content as well as promoted a good aggregate structure in the soil. Especially the organic forage crop rotation reduced erosion rate compared to the simplest rotation. The diversified practices were beneficial to soil biological activity as deduced from the higher microbial abundance and earthworm numbers compared the control. Organic rotations had lower nitrogen leaching losses compared to the conventional rotations. The yields under organic management, although lower than in conventional, were satisfactory and produced without artificial fertilisers or pesticides which is a clear benefit considering the overall sustainability of production. Maintenance of rotations for milk production is beneficial for the region because it is a natural way of implementing diverse cultivation with several crop types including forage, grains and legumes. Organic farming provides extra income for the farmer in the form of subsidies and product price.

Suomessa tehty tapaustutkimus on ollut luomu- viljelykierroissa vuodesta 2001 lähtien, ja siinä on käytetty viljelykierrossa nurmia ja palkokasveja, lannoituksessa lantaa sekä vähän tuotantopanoksia ilman torjunta-aineita ja synteettisiä lannoitteita. Tässä tapaustutkimuksessa oli kolme monipuolista viljelykiertoa. Kontrolliviljelykierto oli viljakiertoa kemiallisilla lannoitteilla ja torjunta-aineilla. Kaikissa monimuotoistusvaihtoehdoissa oli maaperän laadun kannalta selviä etuja. Ne säilyttivät hyvin maaperän hiilipitoisuuden sekä edistivät maaperän hyvää rakennetta. Erityisesti luomurehun viljelykierto vähensi eroosiota verrattuna yksinkertaisimpaan kiertoon. Monipuoliset käytännöt olivat hyödyllisiä maaperän biologiselle aktiivisuudelle, mikä pääteltiin korkeammasta mikrobimäärästä ja kastelieromääristä verrattuna kontrolliin. Orgaanisten kiertojen typen huuhtoutumishäviöt olivat pienemmät verrattuna tavanomaisiin kiertoihin. Luonnonmukaisessa hoidossa saadut sadot, vaikkakin pienemmät kuin perinteisessä, olivat tyydyttäviä ja tuotettiin ilman keinolannoitteita tai torjunta-aineita, mikä on selkeä etu tuotannon kestävyyden kannalta. Maidontuotannon kiertojen ylläpitäminen on seudulle hyödyllistä, koska se on luonnollinen tapa toteuttaa monipuolista viljelyä useilla viljelykasveilla, mukaan lukien rehu, viljat ja palkokasvit. Luomuviljely tuottaa viljelijälle lisätuloa tukien ja tuotteen hinnan muodossa.

The diversification of perennial crops (caper and thyme intercropped with almond trees) led to an improvement in various indicators of soil quality, health and functionality 3 years after its implementation. In this short period of time, improvements were observed in diversifications with respect to monoculture in: i) the water and soil moisture retention capacity; ii) the organic carbon and mineral nitrogen available to the plant in the form of ammonium and nitrates; and iii) in the capacity to produce plant biomass. At the same time, in the three years of implementation of the diversifications, the production of almonds has been similar in the monoculture and in the diversifications, indicating that the improvement in water and nutrients in the soil has contributed to minimize the competition of the species interspersed with the main crop. Despite the short term of this study and the extreme environmental conditions of the experimental area (low annual precipitation, high temperatures, low content of soil organic matter and low availability of nutrients in the soil) all these agri-environmental benefits support the potential of intercropping rainfed almond trees with productive woody species as alternatives to monoculture, favoring the regulation of water, climate and nutrients provided by the soil without compromising the production of the main crop. In the long term, the new and greater contributions of organic matter, from the developed vegetation, to the soil favored by diversifications will have a beneficial effect on the activity of soil organisms and microorganisms, increasing its functional biodiversity.

La diversificación de cultivos perennes (tápena y tomillo intercalados con almendro) supuso una mejora en diversos indicadores de calidad, salud y funcionalidad del suelo 3 años después de su implementación. En este corto plazo de tiempo se observaron mejoras en las diversificaciones con respecto al monocultivo en: i) la capacidad de retención de agua y humedad del suelo; ii) en el carbono orgánico y nitrógeno mineral disponible para la planta en forma de amonio y nitratos; y iii) en la capacidad de producir biomasa vegetal. Paralelamente, en los tres años de implementación de las diversificaciones, la producción de almendra ha sido similar en el monocultivo y en las diversificaciones, indicando que la mejora en agua y nutrientes en el suelo ha contribuido a minimizar la competencia de las especies intercaladas con el cultivo principal. A pesar del corto plazo de este estudio y de las condiciones ambientales extremas de la zona experimental (escasa precipitación anual, altas temperaturas, bajo contenido en materia orgánica del suelo y baja disponibilidad de nutrientes en el suelo), todos estos beneficios agroambientales apoyan el potencial de intercalar estas especies perennes productivas entre almendros de secano como alternativas al monocultivo favoreciendo los servicios de regulación del agua, clima y nutrientes proporcionados por el suelo sin comprometer la producción del cultivo principal. A largo plazo, los nuevos y mayores aportes de materia orgánica al suelo favorecidos por las diversificaciones tendrán un efecto muy beneficioso sobre la actividad de los organismos y microorganismos del suelo incrementando la biodiversidad funcional del mismo.

In the vineyards of hilly regions, particularly in organic farming, grassing of alleys between grapevine rows is a commonly advised practice of erosion control where precipitation amounts are sufficient. Intercropping with high-value crops and applying low-input management is an option which could bring additional market benefits. The farmers, however, have reservations about the deleterious impacts on the main crops as far as soil moisture preservation and nutrient cycling are concerned and the widespread introduction of diversification is lagging behind. Within the Diverfarming project the possible negative effects of intercropping with a common aromatic plant (yarrow, Achillea millefolium) were studied compared to grass mixture in the Pannonian pedoclimatic region, which covers Hungary. A survey of terroir types demarcates those areas of the Villány Wine-producing District which are optimal and advisable for intercropping with aromatic plant. Water management is controlled by actual evaporation and net assimilation rate. For vegetation cover yarrow cover is very similar to grassing and the finer and uniformly developed roots of yarrow create favourable aggregation. Higher aggregates contain more organic carbon: humus content in diversification with grassing 53-250 μm aggregates is 3.62%, with yarrow it is 3.37% as opposed to 2.87% in alleys without intercropping. Also for soil C/N ratio both varieties of intercropping are optimal (20 to 30). Surplus mineralized N is disadvantageous for grapes. In monocropping an accumulation of nitrate is indicated in the soil. In a long-cultivated vineyard the distribution of C and N forms is heavily influenced by slope inclination: at the base of the slope C and N contents are 50% higher. In the course of a three-year experiment introduced new management is unable to change this distribution. As for microbiology, enzyme activity is also significantly higher in both diversifications that in control plots. The results provide argument for the introduction of diversifications. Sowing yarrow seems to be a good alternative for soil erosion control over 18-27% of the Villány District.

A dombvidéki szőlőterületeken, különösen, ha ott biogazdálkodás folyik, a szőlőtőkék sorközeinek befűvesítése a talajvédelem bevett eljárása, feltéve, ha a capadék mennyisége ezt megengedi. Ha a köztesen vetett növény maga is értékes termény és kis ráfordítással termesztik, ez az eljárás piaci hasznot is hozhat. A gazdálkodóknak azonban fenntartásaik vannak azzal kapcsolatban, hogy a köztes vetemény károsan hat a főnövényre a talajnedvesség megőrzése vagy a tápanyagforgalom szempontjából, ezért vonakodnak bevezetni ilyen diverzifikációt. A Diverfarming projekt keretében egy gyakori aromás növény (cickafarkfű, Achillea millefolium) esetében vizsgáltuk a köztes vetés esetleges negatív hatásait, egy fűkeverékkel mint fedőnövénnyel összehasonlítva, a Magyarországot lefedő Pannon pedoklimatikus régióban. A Villányi borvidék terroirtípusainak lehatárolásával megállapítottuk azokat a területeket, amelyek az aromás növény vetésére a leglkalmasabbak és javasolhatók. Vízgazdálkodási szempontból itt a tényleges párolgásnak és a nettó asszimilációs rátának van jelentősége. A cickafark nyújtotta talajtakarás nagyon hasonlít a pázsitfűborításhoz, de a cickafark finomabb és egyenletesen fejlődő gyökérzete még jobban elősegíti a talajagregátumok képződését. A nagyobb agregátumok több szenet kötnek meg, a humusztartalom fűtakaró esetén 53-250 μm-es agregátum-tartományban 3,62%, cickafarkfű borítás alatt 3,37%, a köztes vetés nélküli, csupasz sorközök 2,87%-ával összevetve. A talaj C/N aránya is mindkét köztes vetésnél optimális (20–32 közötti). A túl sok mineralizált nitrogén káros a szőlő növekedése és a bor minősége szempontjából. Szőlő monokultúrában viszont a talaj nitrátfelhalmozódást mutat. A hosszabb ideje szőlőként hasznosított dombvidékeken a szén- és a nitrogénformák eloszlása a lejtőszöggel is jól korrelál: a lejtő alján a talaj szén- és nitrogéntartalma 50%-kal magasabb. A hároméves kísérleti időtartam során bevezetett újfajta kezelések még nem voltak képesek jelentősen átalakítani ezt az eloszlást. Mikrobiológiai szempontból azonban az enzimaktivitás mindkét diverzifikációban szignifikánsan nagyobb volt, mint a kontrollparcellán. A kísérlet eredményei a diverzifikációk bevezetéséhez szolgáltatnak érveket. Cickafark vetése a sorközökben a Villányi borvidék területének 18-27%-án jó megoldás lehet a talajerőzió elleni védekezésben.

The new green architecture of the CAP aims to provide new tools to support farmers to made more sustainable food systems within fair and balanced supply chains. In this context, the activities of the Diverfarming project can provide useful information regarding the adoption of sustainable practices by farmers as well as about the role of downstream value chain actors.

The Italian case studies involved the implementation of crop rotation through the creation of a horizontal multi-year and multi-product supply chain agreement. The contract provided the introduction of pea (legume), a technical support service about new practices and crops, a guarantee of product purchase and insurance contracts which cover for multiple types of risks.

The results of the analysis of the margins per hectare show that crops production yields seems to be not sufficient to justify the multiple crops including pea and second harvet tomato crops. If we consider exclusively the values referring to production (GSP) and cultivation costs (Input Costs/Cultivation Operation), the gross margin increases are not significant. The profitability of farmers achieves significant improvements if we consider adherence to horizontal supply chain agreements as whole. Through this contract, producers also have access to several support tools provided by the CAP (CMO, AECM, Risk) and premium price per hectare for the durum wheat. Through these, the diversify systems gross margin per hectare increases on average by over 70% compared to the ordinary production system.

This demonstrates how technical knowledge must be combined with an overall vision capable of amplifying opportunities and creating win-win solutions for all partners involved within the supply chain.

"La nuova architettura verde della PAC si pone l’obiettivo di fornire nuovi strumenti a sostegna degli agricoltori e per avere sistemi del cibo più sostenibili prodotti da filiere eque e bilanciate.

I 3 casi studio italiani hanno previsto l’implementazione della rotazione colturale attraverso la co-creazione di un prototipo di accordo orizzontale di filiera pluriennale e pluri-prodotto. Il contratto sperimentale ha previsto, la coltivazione del pisello (legume), un servizio di supporto tecnico dedicato alle nuove pratiche, garanzie di ritiro delle produzioni più ampie e l'adozione di polizze assicurative capaci di coprire più tipologie di rischi.

I risultati mostrano che una buona efficienza produttiva non è sufficiente a giustificare la rotazione con una leguminosa e il mantenimento del pomodoro di secondo raccolto. Se si considerano esclusivamente i valori riferiti a produzione (PLV) e costi colturali (Mezzi tecnici/Meccanizzazione) il sistema diversificato non sembra essere preferibile a quello ordinario. Tuttavia la redditività degli agricoltori raggiunge miglioramenti significativi grazie all'insieme delle soluzioni proposte nel contratto tra cui l'accesso agevolato a diversi strumenti di supporto forniti dalla PAC (OCM, AECM, Rischio) e dalle filiere. Il margine a ettaro del sistema diversificato supera di circa il 70% quello del sistema ordinario. L'approccio contrattuale ha agevolato gli agricoltori a cogliere tutte le opportunità di sistemi di supporto offerte dalle politiche agroambientali e dalla filiera. Questo dimostra come alla conoscenza tecnica debba aggiungersi una visione di insieme capace di creare soluzioni vantaggiose condivise in modo trasversale tra filiere, produttori e agricoltori."

Grapevine biomass growth was monitored in connection with carbon storage types in soil and in the deposits removed by soil erosion as part of the agroecological experiments during 2018 and 2019. Phenometry was carried out interpreting segmented images to follow changes in biomass. Crop growth could be best described by the Richards growth function. The distinction between grapevine and intercrop growth, however, requires further refinement in image analysis. In the laboratory TOC, Ntotal values were established for both the soil and the plant organs as well as for the eroded sediments. The analyses of carbon cycle also involved greenhouse gas emission and net photosynthesis measurements. Looking at the change of Leaf Area Index (LAI) over the growing period, image analysis pointed out the role of cut shoots from pruning in the C and N cycles. Maximum leaf area (at ripening) for guyot cultivation technique was extimated at 7,840 m2 ha-1. Soil loss by erosion was established by sediment traps at the end of vinestock rows. The grain size distribution analysis led to the remarkable result that as erosion proceeds, the ratio of the sand fraction increases but remains within the range for the textural class of loam. Organic matter contents grow to 38 g kg-1. The rate of soil erosion is higher in ploughed than in grassed interrows by orders of magnitude. During cultivation the concentration of runoff in tractor tracks should be avoided and the intensification of soil erosion prevented.

A szőlő biomassza növekedését együtt vizsgáltuk a talajban történő széntárolással és az erózió során lemosódott szerves anyaggal. Az agroökológiai kísérletek 2018-ban és 2019-ben folytak. A biomassza változását képelemzéses fenometriai módszerrel vizsgáltuk. A szőlő fejlődése leginkább a Richards-féle trendfüggvénnyel volt leírható. A szőlő és a sorok közé vetett növények fejlődésének elkülönítése a képanalízis további fnomítását igényli. A laboratóriumban a talaj szerves szén- és N-tartalmát vizsgáltunk, ugyanezt a növényi szervekre és a lepusztult hordalékra is megnéztük. A szénkörforgalom feltárása érdekében mértük az üvegházhatású gázok kibocsátását és a nettó fotoszintézist. A levélfelület-index (LAI) monitorozása kimjutatta a metszéssel keletkező nyesedékek nagy szerepét a C és N ciklusban. Guyot művelés esetén az éréskor vett LAI maximális értéke 7,840 m2 volt hektáronként. A talajerózióból származó, üledékcsapdákkal felfogott talajhordalék elemzése kimutatta, hogy az erózió előrehaladtával a homokfrakció aránya növekszik, de a vályog fizikai féleség határán belül. A hordalék szervesanyag-tartalma élérte a 38 g értéket kg-onként. A talajerózió a felszántott sorközökben több nagyságrenddel gyorsabb volt, mint a füvesített sorközökben. A művelést úgy kell megszervezni, hogy a traktornyomokban ne gyűljön össze a lefolyó víz, ne erősödjön fel a talajerózió.

Nutrient uptake by rootstock is controlled by properties like extension and morphology of root system and its physiology. The experiment running for 15 years was aimed at revealing how effectively nutrients are utilized by grapes harvested for Cabernet sauvignon grapes. The grapes were grafted on Berlandieri x Riparia rootstocks. The terraced experimental area is located on the southern foothills of the Western Mecsek Mountains at 200-220 m elevation. It has southern exposure, soils with low water capacity, high susceptibility to drought and strong limitations in the amount of available nutrients. Soil samples were taken at 5-year intervals for clay content, hy, pH, humus, K2O, P2O5, Mg, S, Na, Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, B contents). Soil moisture contents were recorded at four phenological phases (budding, bloom, ’greenpea’ stage and burgeoning). The methods applied were leaf analysis including the measurement of nutrients in leaf stalks and leaf blades. The parameter which had a most decisive impact on wine quality was surplus or deficiency of two nutrients, K and P. On the findings of the investigations proposals were based to establish an optimum range of nutrient supply.

A szőlőtőke tápanyagfelvételét többek között a növény gyökérrendszerének kiterjedése, morfológiája és fiziológiája is befolyásolja. Egy 15 éves kísérletsorozat keretében arra kerestünk választ, milyen hatékonyan hasznosítja a talaj tápanyaglkészletét a Cabernet Sauvignon szőlőfajta. A tőkéket Berlandiera x Riparia alanyra oltották. A kísérleti parcellák teraszos szőlőskertben helyezkednek el a Mecsek hegység nyugati vonulatainak lábánál, 200-220 m tengerszint feletti magasságban. a felszín kitettsége déli, a talajok vízkapacitása alacsony, nagymértékű az aszályérzékenység és a talajok tápanyag-készlete erősen korlátozott. Ötévenként vettünk talajmintákat, amelyeket agyagtartalomra, hy-ra, pH-ra, humuszra és tápanyagokra (K2O, P2O5, Mg, S, Na, Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, B) vizsgáltunk. A talaj nedvességállapotát négy fenológiai fázisban (rügyezés, virágzás, "zöldborsó-állapot", bogyófejlődés) elemeztük. Al aklamazott módszer a levélszárak és a levélfelületek tápanyagtartalmára is kiterjedt. A bor minőségére elsősorban két tápelem hatott: a kálium és a foszfor. A kísérleti eredmények alapján javaslatokat tettünk a növény optimális tápanyag-ellátottságának kialakítására.

Grapevine biomass growth was monitored in connection with carbon storage types in soil and in the deposits removed by soil erosion as part of the agroecological experiments during 2018 and 2019. Phenometry was carried out interpreting segmented images to follow changes in biomass. Crop growth could be best described by the Richards growth function. The distinction between grapevine and intercrop growth, however, requires further refinement in image analysis. In the laboratory TOC, Ntotal values were established for both the soil and the plant organs as well as for the eroded sediments. The analyses of carbon cycle also involved greenhouse gas emission and net photosynthesis measurements. Looking at the change of Leaf Area Index (LAI) over the growing period, image analysis pointed out the role of cut shoots from pruning in the C and N cycles. Maximum leaf area (at ripening) for guyot cultivation technique was extimated at 7,840 m2 ha-1. Soil loss by erosion was established by sediment traps at the end of vinestock rows. The grain size distribution analysis led to the remarkable result that as erosion proceeds, the ratio of the sand fraction increases but remains within the range for the textural class of loam. Organic matter contents grow to 38 g kg-1. The rate of soil erosion is higher in ploughed than in grassed interrows by orders of magnitude. During cultivation the concentration of runoff in tractor tracks should be avoided and the intensification of soil erosion prevented.

A szőlő biomassza növekedését együtt vizsgáltuk a talajban történő széntárolással és az erózió során lemosódott szerves anyaggal. Az agroökológiai kísérletek 2018-ban és 2019-ben folytak. A biomassza változását képelemzéses fenometriai módszerrel vizsgáltuk. A szőlő fejlődése leginkább a Richards-féle trendfüggvénnyel volt leírható. A szőlő és a sorok közé vetett növények fejlődésének elkülönítése a képanalízis további fnomítását igényli. A laboratóriumban a talaj szerves szén- és N-tartalmát vizsgáltunk, ugyanezt a növényi szervekre és a lepusztult hordalékra is megnéztük. A szénkörforgalom feltárása érdekében mértük az üvegházhatású gázok kibocsátását és a nettó fotoszintézist. A levélfelület-index (LAI) monitorozása kimjutatta a metszéssel keletkező nyesedékek nagy szerepét a C és N ciklusban. Guyot művelés esetén az éréskor vett LAI maximális értéke 7,840 m2 volt hektáronként. A talajerózióból származó, üledékcsapdákkal felfogott talajhordalék elemzése kimutatta, hogy az erózió előrehaladtával a homokfrakció aránya növekszik, de a vályog fizikai féleség határán belül. A hordalék szervesanyag-tartalma élérte a 38 g értéket kg-onként. A talajerózió a felszántott sorközökben több nagyságrenddel gyorsabb volt, mint a füvesített sorközökben. A művelést úgy kell megszervezni, hogy a traktornyomokban ne gyűljön össze a lefolyó víz, ne erősödjön fel a talajerózió.

Nutrient uptake by rootstock is controlled by properties like extension and morphology of root system and its physiology. The experiment running for 15 years was aimed at revealing how effectively nutrients are utilized by grapes harvested for Cabernet sauvignon grapes. The grapes were grafted on Berlandieri x Riparia rootstocks. The terraced experimental area is located on the southern foothills of the Western Mecsek Mountains at 200-220 m elevation. It has southern exposure, soils with low water capacity, high susceptibility to drought and strong limitations in the amount of available nutrients. Soil samples were taken at 5-year intervals for clay content, hy, pH, humus, K2O, P2O5, Mg, S, Na, Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, B contents). Soil moisture contents were recorded at four phenological phases (budding, bloom, ’greenpea’ stage and burgeoning). The methods applied were leaf analysis including the measurement of nutrients in leaf stalks and leaf blades. The parameter which had a most decisive impact on wine quality was surplus or deficiency of two nutrients, K and P. On the findings of the investigations proposals were based to establish an optimum range of nutrient supply.

A szőlőtőke tápanyagfelvételét többek között a növény gyökérrendszerének kiterjedése, morfológiája és fiziológiája is befolyásolja. Egy 15 éves kísérletsorozat keretében arra kerestünk választ, milyen hatékonyan hasznosítja a talaj tápanyaglkészletét a Cabernet Sauvignon szőlőfajta. A tőkéket Berlandiera x Riparia alanyra oltották. A kísérleti parcellák teraszos szőlőskertben helyezkednek el a Mecsek hegység nyugati vonulatainak lábánál, 200-220 m tengerszint feletti magasságban. a felszín kitettsége déli, a talajok vízkapacitása alacsony, nagymértékű az aszályérzékenység és a talajok tápanyag-készlete erősen korlátozott. Ötévenként vettünk talajmintákat, amelyeket agyagtartalomra, hy-ra, pH-ra, humuszra és tápanyagokra (K2O, P2O5, Mg, S, Na, Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, B) vizsgáltunk. A talaj nedvességállapotát négy fenológiai fázisban (rügyezés, virágzás, "zöldborsó-állapot", bogyófejlődés) elemeztük. Al aklamazott módszer a levélszárak és a levélfelületek tápanyagtartalmára is kiterjedt. A bor minőségére elsősorban két tápelem hatott: a kálium és a foszfor. A kísérleti eredmények alapján javaslatokat tettünk a növény optimális tápanyag-ellátottságának kialakítására.

In the legislative proposals of the CAP reform framework, the environment plays a key role. One of the main objectives is to support the transition to a sustainable agricultural sector. Its rationale is to maintain cross-cutting tools aimed at supporting farmers 'income by using citizens' concern for environmental issues as the main political justification. The pressing challenges posed by society in terms of sustainability require a CAP with a more innovative and effective approach and tools that can at the same time meet the needs of farmers, citizens and the environment. This study aims to investigate the WTP company in terms of ecosystem services, which are translated and implemented within the GAEC (Good Agricultural Environmental Conditions) guidelines of the new CAP. To provide useful information to policy-makers, this was tested using a Non-Market Valuation (NMV) approach, based on choice experiment methods. Citizens show an opportunistic attitude as they are more likely to pay for ecosystem services that have more "visible" negative externalities and therefore cause immediate damage to the local community, compared to those that have long-term effects and therefore a longer time and space horizon broad. Citizens show a sort of diminishing marginal utility for environmental services as well.

Despite the limitations of the analysis, this result shows that citizens are willing to pay to promote the transition of intensive agricultural production systems to sustainable ones are therefore legitimizing the CAP Greening process. This evidence supports the logic of enhanced conditionality, where GAECs are included in the first pillar CAP as mandatory requirements for the beneficiaries of the decoupled payment.

Nelle proposte legislative della riforma della PAC, l'ambiente gioca un ruolo chiave. Uno dei principali obiettivi è sostenere la transizione verso un settore agricolo sostenibile. La sua logica è mantenere strumenti trasversali volti a sostenere il reddito degli agricoltori utilizzando la preoccupazione dei cittadini per le questioni ambientali come giustificazione politica. Le pressanti sfide poste dalla società in termini di sostenibilità richiedono una PAC con approccio più innovativo ed efficace che possa soddisfare esigenze di agricoltori, cittadini e ambiente. Questo studio si propone di indagare la disponibilità a pagare (WTP) della società per i servizi ecosistemici (ES), implementati all'interno delle riformulate GAEC (Good Agricultural Environmental Conditions) della nuova PAC. Per fornire informazioni utili ai responsabili politici, ciò è stato testato utilizzando un approccio di valutazione non di mercato (NMV), basato su un choice experiment.I cittadini mostrano un atteggiamento opportunistico, poichè la loro WTP aumenta per ES che hanno esternalità negative immediate e provocano tempestivi danni alla comunità locale, rispetto a quelli che hanno effetti a lungo termine e quindi orizzonti spazio/tempo più ampi. La società mostra una sorta di utilità marginale decrescente per i servizi ambientali. Nonostante i limiti dell'analisi, questo risultato mostra che i cittadini sono disposti a pagare per promuovere la transizione a sistemi agricoli sostenibili e stanno legittimando il processo di Greening della PAC.Queste prove supportano la logica della condizionalità rafforzata, in cui le GAEC sono incluse nel primo pilastro della PAC come requisiti obbligatori per i beneficiari del pagamento disaccoppiato.

After 10 years of implementation of alternative practices to conventional tillage such as the reduction of tillage and the use of green manure, significant improvements have been obtained both from an environmental and economic point of view. These improvements led to a 65% reduction in runoff and 85% erosion, which implies a significant decrease in nutrient losses by erosion (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium). It is important to highlight that erosion control with these practices is even greater in events produced by higher intensity rains. The results also indicate an increase in soil fertility due to the greater contributions of organic matter by the established vegetation between the almond trees (covering the soil for longer periods than when tillage is more frequent). It is worth highlighting increases of 20% of organic matter and of approximately 40% of nitrogen in the soil compared to conventional tillage. The increase in nitrogen is crucial since it is one of the most important limiting factors for almond production in these systems. In this sense and, despite the high annual variability in the crop yield, results indicate improvements in production with an average increase of 32% in income (euros / ha) for the farmer with the reduction of tillage and a 4% reduction in costs related to field operations. With green manure, however, there is no clear improvement from an economic point of view. In both practices, and from the environmental point of view, the reduction in the number of plowing operations from two to one per year leads to a reduction in CO2 emissions of about 20%.

Tras 10 años de implementación de prácticas alternativas al laboreo convencional como son la reducción del laboreo y la utilización de abonos verdes (siembra verde) se han obtenido mejoras significativas tanto desde un punto de vista ambiental como económico. Dichas mejoras se traducen en una reducción de la escorrentía del 65% y de la erosión de un 85% lo que lo que implica un importante descenso de las pérdidas de nutrientes por erosión (nitrógeno, fósforo y potasio). Es importante resaltar que el control de la erosión con estas prácticas es incluso mayor en eventos producidos por lluvias de mayor intensidad. Los resultados también indican un incremento en la fertilidad del suelo por los mayores aportes de materia orgánica por parte de la vegetación que se establece entre el almendro (cubriendo el suelo durante periodos más largos que cuando el laboreo es más frecuente). Cabe resaltar incrementos del 20% de materia orgánica y de aproximadamente el 40% de nitrógeno en el suelo respecto al laboreo convencional. El incremento de nitrógeno es crucial dado que es uno de los factores limitantes más importantes para la producción del almendro en estos sistemas. En este sentido y, a pesar de la alta variabilidad anual en la producción de almendra, nuestros resultados indican mejoras en la producción con un incremento medio de un 32% en los ingresos (euros/ha) para el agricultor con la reducción del laboreo y reducción de un 4% en los costes ligados al manejo. Con la siembra verde, sin embargo, no hay una mejora clara desde el punto de vista económico. En ambas prácticas, y desde el punto de vista medioambiental, la reducción en el número de operaciones de arado de dos a uno al año llevan consigo una reducción de las emisiones de CO2 a la atmósfera de aproximadamente el 20%.

In Mediterranean rainfed systems, no-tillage is an excellent option to enhance soil organic matter levels, soil structure and finally crop growth and yield. Over the last 10 years, in a long-term experiment located in NE Spain, no-tillage resulted in 30% greater soil organic matter (measured as soil organic carbon) in the first soil 10 cm depth compared with the conventional tillage system. The increase in soil organic carbon was explained by the accumulation of crop residues in soil surface in the no-tillage system. In general, it was observed about 20 and 30% greater barley grain yield in no-tillage than in conventional tillage plots. The greater crop yield was related with the higher soil water conservation in no-tillage soils. In this last system, the absence of soil disturbance facilitated a residue layer in the soil surface which prevented the loss of soil water by evaporation. Thus, the greater water stored in no-tillage soils is ready accessible for crop plants and contributes to plant growth. Furthermore, in this experiment, it was observed that no-tillage improves soil structure and, particularly, soil aggregate size and stability. It was observed a 50% increase in the number of soil stable aggregates in no-tillage which resulted in more optimal soil aeration and root growth conditions compared with conventional tillage. All these improvements turn into greater crop production and yield in no-tillage compared with conventional tillage systems.

En condiciones de secano extensivo mediterráneo la siembra directa ha demostrado ser una excelente opción para mejorar los niveles de materia orgánica, la estructura del suelo y, en definitiva, el rendimiento y la productividad de los cultivos. A lo largo de los últimos 10 años, en un ensayo localizado en el NE de España, el sistema de siembra directa obtuvo un 30% más de materia orgánica (medido como carbono orgánico) en los primeros 10 cm de suelo en comparación con el sistema de laboreo convencional. Este aumento de carbono orgánico de la superficie del suelo se debió a un mayor aporte de residuos de cosecha en el sistema de siembra directa respecto al sistema con laboreo. En general, se observó un 20-30% más de rendimiento de grano de cebada en las parcelas de siembra directa respecto a las parcelas de laboreo convencional. Esta mayor productividad observada se debe a la mayor conservación de agua en suelos de siembra directa. En estos sistemas, la ausencia de laboreo, facilita la creación de una capa de residuos de cosecha que permance en la superficie del suelo. En estas zonas de secano, esta capa de residuos frena la pérdida de agua del suelo por evaporación directa, favoreciendo el almacenamiento de agua en el suelo y su posterior utilización por los cultivos. Además, en este ensayo también se ha visto que los sistemas de siembra directa mejoran la estructura del suelo y en concreto el tamaño y estabilidad de los agregados del suelo. En este ensayo se observó un 50% más de agregados estables de gran tamaño en siembra directa respecto al laboreo convencional. Esta mejor condición física del suelo ha permitido unas condiciones más óptimas de aireación y desarrollo radicular y a su vez una mejor infiltración y conservación de agua en el suelo. Todo esto último beneficiando el crecimiento y, posterior, producción de los cultivos.

Nutrient uptake by rootstock is controlled by properties like extension and morphology of root system and its physiology. The experiment running for 15 years was aimed at revealing how effectively nutrients are utilized by grapes harvested for Cabernet sauvignon grapes. The grapes were grafted on Berlandieri x Riparia rootstocks. The terraced experimental area is located on the southern foothills of the Western Mecsek Mountains at 200-220 m elevation. It has southern exposure, soils with low water capacity, high susceptibility to drought and strong limitations in the amount of available nutrients. Soil samples were taken at 5-year intervals for clay content, hy, pH, humus, K2O, P2O5, Mg, S, Na, Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, B contents). Soil moisture contents were recorded at four phenological phases (budding, bloom, ’greenpea’ stage and burgeoning). The methods applied were leaf analysis including the measurement of nutrients in leaf stalks and leaf blades. The parameter which had a most decisive impact on wine quality was surplus or deficiency of two nutrients, K and P. On the findings of the investigations proposals were based to establish an optimum range of nutrient supply.

A szőlőtőke tápanyagfelvételét többek között a növény gyökérrendszerének kiterjedése, morfológiája és fiziológiája is befolyásolja. Egy 15 éves kísérletsorozat keretében arra kerestünk választ, milyen hatékonyan hasznosítja a talaj tápanyaglkészletét a Cabernet Sauvignon szőlőfajta. A tőkéket Berlandiera x Riparia alanyra oltották. A kísérleti parcellák teraszos szőlőskertben helyezkednek el a Mecsek hegység nyugati vonulatainak lábánál, 200-220 m tengerszint feletti magasságban. a felszín kitettsége déli, a talajok vízkapacitása alacsony, nagymértékű az aszályérzékenység és a talajok tápanyag-készlete erősen korlátozott. Ötévenként vettünk talajmintákat, amelyeket agyagtartalomra, hy-ra, pH-ra, humuszra és tápanyagokra (K2O, P2O5, Mg, S, Na, Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, B) vizsgáltunk. A talaj nedvességállapotát négy fenológiai fázisban (rügyezés, virágzás, "zöldborsó-állapot", bogyófejlődés) elemeztük. Al aklamazott módszer a levélszárak és a levélfelületek tápanyagtartalmára is kiterjedt. A bor minőségére elsősorban két tápelem hatott: a kálium és a foszfor. A kísérleti eredmények alapján javaslatokat tettünk a növény optimális tápanyag-ellátottságának kialakítására.

Grapevine biomass growth was monitored in connection with carbon storage types in soil and in the deposits removed by soil erosion as part of the agroecological experiments during 2018 and 2019. Phenometry was carried out interpreting segmented images to follow changes in biomass. Crop growth could be best described by the Richards growth function. The distinction between grapevine and intercrop growth, however, requires further refinement in image analysis. In the laboratory TOC, Ntotal values were established for both the soil and the plant organs as well as for the eroded sediments. The analyses of carbon cycle also involved greenhouse gas emission and net photosynthesis measurements. Looking at the change of Leaf Area Index (LAI) over the growing period, image analysis pointed out the role of cut shoots from pruning in the C and N cycles. Maximum leaf area (at ripening) for guyot cultivation technique was extimated at 7,840 m2 ha-1. Soil loss by erosion was established by sediment traps at the end of vinestock rows. The grain size distribution analysis led to the remarkable result that as erosion proceeds, the ratio of the sand fraction increases but remains within the range for the textural class of loam. Organic matter contents grow to 38 g kg-1. The rate of soil erosion is higher in ploughed than in grassed interrows by orders of magnitude. During cultivation the concentration of runoff in tractor tracks should be avoided and the intensification of soil erosion prevented.

A szőlő biomassza növekedését együtt vizsgáltuk a talajban történő széntárolással és az erózió során lemosódott szerves anyaggal. Az agroökológiai kísérletek 2018-ban és 2019-ben folytak. A biomassza változását képelemzéses fenometriai módszerrel vizsgáltuk. A szőlő fejlődése leginkább a Richards-féle trendfüggvénnyel volt leírható. A szőlő és a sorok közé vetett növények fejlődésének elkülönítése a képanalízis további fnomítását igényli. A laboratóriumban a talaj szerves szén- és N-tartalmát vizsgáltunk, ugyanezt a növényi szervekre és a lepusztult hordalékra is megnéztük. A szénkörforgalom feltárása érdekében mértük az üvegházhatású gázok kibocsátását és a nettó fotoszintézist. A levélfelület-index (LAI) monitorozása kimjutatta a metszéssel keletkező nyesedékek nagy szerepét a C és N ciklusban. Guyot művelés esetén az éréskor vett LAI maximális értéke 7,840 m2 volt hektáronként. A talajerózióból származó, üledékcsapdákkal felfogott talajhordalék elemzése kimutatta, hogy az erózió előrehaladtával a homokfrakció aránya növekszik, de a vályog fizikai féleség határán belül. A hordalék szervesanyag-tartalma élérte a 38 g értéket kg-onként. A talajerózió a felszántott sorközökben több nagyságrenddel gyorsabb volt, mint a füvesített sorközökben. A művelést úgy kell megszervezni, hogy a traktornyomokban ne gyűljön össze a lefolyó víz, ne erősödjön fel a talajerózió.

Ecosystem services provided by diversified farming systems can contribute to well-being of consumers in many ways. This study was conducted to find out how consumers value diversified cropping systems and their ecosystem services in Finland. The results, based on survey responses from 600 consumers, show that consumers, on the average, are willing to pay 228 €/household/year for ecological and socio-cultural benefits of diversified cropping systems. The most important benefits for consumers were sustained domestic food production, food security, reduction of nutrient leaching to watercourses, maintenance of local food culture, reduced greenhouse gas emissions and increased carbon sequestration. However, farm level implications of cropping diversification, such as reduced use of purchased inputs, was not highly valued by consumers. Some respondents said it is difficult to evaluate the importance of farm level consequences. The results also indicate that 21% of consumers were not willing to pay anything to support more diverse cropping systems. Identification and valuation of ecosystem services bundles may be useful to help decision makers in food chain and firms, as well as in public administration, to see how general public see the value of eco-system services in agriculture. This may help to account for the most important eco-system services of agro-food system and to develop appropriate actions in the food chain, or policy measures, to maintain these ecosystem services. The results suggest that policy makers should not focus too much at the farm or food chain level but take into account larger and aggregate level societal and environmental benefits of diversified agriculture.

Tutkimuksessa haastateltiin 600 kuluttajaa maan eri osista. Erilaisilla kysymyksillä selvitettiin, mitä viljelyn monimuotoistamisen hyötyjä ja vaikutuksia vastaajat ensi sijassa arvostavat. Lisäksi selvitettiin kuluttajien halukkuutta maksaa lisähintaa ruuasta, jos se on tuotettu aiempaa monimuotoisemmin. Tulosten mukaan 79 % vastaajista oli valmis maksamaan jotain lisähintaa viljelyn monimuotoisuudesta. Kyllä-vastanneiden kesken juustokilolle laskettu keskimääräinen maksuhalukkuus oli 1.13€. Kun vaadittavaa maksusummaa korotettiin, keskimäärin kieltäydyttiin maksamasta enempää kuin 7.22€ /kg. Monimuotoisen maatalouden hyödyistä vastaajat arvostivat eniten kotimaisen ja paikallisen maatalouden ja ruuantuotannon ylläpitoa, pienempiä ravinnevalumia vesistöihin, ruokakulttuurin ja paikallisten perinteiden ylläpitoa, sekä kasvihuonekaasupäästöjen vähenemistä. Maaseudun työpaikkojen ylläpito sai vastauksissa suuremman painon kuin peltotason biodiversiteetti (lajirunsaus). Osa vastaajista sanoi, etteivät osaa arvioida maatilatason panoskäyttömuutosten merkitystä. 21% vastaajista ei halunnut maksaa mitään ylimääräistä viljelyn monipuolistamisesta oman taloutensa ruokalaskussa. Esille tullut keskimääräinen maksuhalukkuus oli 228€ /kotitalous vuodessa. Tulokset kertovat ensisijassa siitä, mitä kuluttajat arvostavat ja odottavat ympäristön paremmin huomioon ottavalta monimuotoiselta maataloudelta. Ilmaistut arvostukset ja maksuhalukkuudet ovat varteenotettavia viestejä ruokaketjun ja hallinnon päättäjille ja politiikan tekijöille: Maatila- ja arvoketjutason lisäksi on tärkeää ottaa huomioon laajempia ympäristöllisiä ja yhteiskunnallisia vaikutuksia.

Soil is an important factor for agriculture production and it is not only the medium for plant growth. Organic farming includes the use of organic fertilizers, and places emphasis on techniques such as rotation with companion plants or intercropping, and the control of pest and diseases has to be done by natural methods, avoiding the synthetic chemical compounds. A long-term horticulture management, comparing organic cultivation systems with use of manure (Org_M) or manure compost and compost tea (Org_C), to conventional cultivation (Inorg) were deeply studied. Organic systems involved longer rotations. The three studied systems significantly produced no differences in crop yield, indicating the high efficiency of organic systems long-term, once the stabilization process takes place. The Org_C system increased soil organic matter and nutrients correlated with a change in bacterial community that improve soil quality and maintain a sustainable agriculture with less inputs.

El suelo es un factor importante para la producción agrícola y no es solo el medio para el crecimiento de las plantas. La agricultura ecológica incluye el uso de fertilizantes orgánicos, y pone énfasis en técnicas como la rotación con plantas acompañantes o cultivos intercalados, y el control de plagas y enfermedades debe hacerse por métodos naturales, evitando los compuestos químicos sintéticos. Se ha estudiado a fondo el manejo de sistemas hortícolas a largo plazo, comparando los sistemas de cultivo escológico con adición de estiércol como fertilizante orgánico (Eco_E) o con adición compost de estiércol y té de compost (Eco_C) con el cultivo convencional (Inorg). Los sistemas ecológicos tuvieron secuencias de rotaciones más largas. No se observaron diferencias en producción entre los tres sistemas de cultivo, indicando la eficiencia de los sistemas ecológicos a largo plazo, una vez se ha estabilizado el sistema. El sistema Eco_C contribuyó a un aumento significativo de la materia orgánica del suelo y los nutrientes. Esto se correlacionó con un cambio en la comunidad bacteriana que mejora la calidad del suelo y mantiene una agricultura sostenible con menos insumos.

This field experiment carried out in SE Spain compared a melon monocrop (M) and different melon-cowpea intercropping systems: Mixed intercropping (MC1) and row intercropping 1:1 (melon:cowpea) (MC2), row intercropping 2:1 (melon:cowpea) (MC3). A cowpea monocrop was established (C). In the first year of intercropping systems, melon yield increased by 34-70% and marketable yield by 40-80% compared to melon monocrop, with 30% less of fertilization than melon monocropping within an organic agriculture framework. All intercropping combinations had a similar result, with average values of 25,272 kg ha-1 of melon yield. Composition and diversity of soil microbial are imperative to maintain the plant biodiversity, soil health and productivity. Significant difference between intercropping systems and monocropping were observed in bacterial communities, increasing intecropping plant growth-promoting bacteria and the nitrogen efficiency use in the agroecosystem. This was associated to increases in bioavailable nutrients in the soil. Thus, intercropping stimulates beneficial bacteria that solubilizes nutrients contributing to increase productivity

Este experimento de campo llevado a cabo en el sudeste de España comparó un monocultivo de melón (M) y diferentes sistemas de cultivo asociado de melón y judía de careta: cultivo mixto (MC1) y cultivo asociado 1: 1 (melón: judía) (MC2), cultivo asociado 2: 1 (melón : judía) (MC3). También se estableció un monocultivo de judía (C). En el primer año de los sistemas de cultivos asociados, el rendimiento del melón aumentó en un 34-70% y el rendimiento comercializable en un 40-80% en comparación con el monocultivo de melón, con un 30% menos de fertilización que el monocultivo de melón dentro de un marco de agricultura orgánica. Todas las combinaciones de cultivos asociados tuvieron respuesta similar con valores de producción de melón de 25.000 ha-1 . La composición y diversidad de los microbios del suelo son imprescindibles para mantener la biodiversidad de las plantas, la salud del suelo y la productividad. Se observaron diferencias significativas entre los sistemas de cultivo asociado y el monocultivo en las comunidades bacterianas, observando un aumento de las bacterias promotoras del crecimiento de las plantas en los sistemas asociados y un incremento en el uso eficiente del nitrógeno en el agroecosistema. Esto condjujo a un incremento de nutrientes biodisponibles en el suelo. Por tanto, la asociación de judía con melón contribuye a una estimulación de bacterias beneficiosas en el suelo que favorecen la solubilización de nutrientes e incrementos en la producción.

No-till (NT) practice is supposed to reduce soil erosion and improve soil properties by reducing the disturbance of soil compared to conventional tillage (CT). We studied erosion rate and carbon allocation to soil physical fractions in clay soil in southwestern Finland after ten consecutive years of NT and CT treatments. The experimental field with a mean slope of 2% was divided in four blocks and each block was divided in 4 plots. Two blocks were under NT management and two under CT by autumn moldboard plowing. The field was under spring cereal cultivation for the duration of the experiment. Runoff was continuously monitored for the whole 10-year period by automatic measurement of drain flow from each plot and surface runoff from each block, and erosion was determined from representative water samples. Soil samples were taken in spring 2018 from three different layers (0 -10 cm, 10-30 cm and 30-60 cm) of each plot. During the 10-year experiment, total erosion was about 58% less in NT than in CT although both drainage and surface runoff were of the same magnitude. The amount of large aggregates and soil organic carbon had increased in the surface layer but decreased deeper in the soil (10 to 30 cm) in NT compared to CT. Thus, the total carbon stock (0 to 60 cm layer) in NT (108 ± 12 Mg C ha-1) was slightly lower than in CT (118 ± 9 Mg C ha-1). The results indicate that NT can be recommended for abatement of erosion in boreal clay soils but soil carbon accrual and climate change mitigation by NT management requires development of the technique towards the practices of conservation agriculture, e.g. increasing the carbon input by cover crops.

Suorakylvön oletetaan vähentävän eroosiota ja parantavan maaperän ominaisuuksia vähentämällä maaperän häiriöitä tavanomaiseen maanmuokkaukseen verrattuna. Tutkimme eroosion määrää ja hiilen jakautumista maaperän fysikaalisiin ositteisiin savimaassa Lounais-Suomessa kymmenen koevuoden jälkeen. Koekenttä, jonka keskimääräinen kaltevuus oli 2 %, jaettiin neljään lohkoon ja kukin lohko jaettiin neljään ruutuun. Kaksi lohkoa oli suorakylvössä ja kaksi kynnettiin syksyisin. Pellolla viljeltiin kevätviljoja. Valumia tarkkailtiin jatkuvatoimisesti kymmenen vuoden ajan mittaamalla salaojavaluntaa jokaiselta koeruudulta ja pintavalunta kustakin lohkosta, ja eroosio määritettiin edustavista vesinäytteistä. Maaperänäytteet otettiin keväällä 2018 kolmesta eri kerroksesta (0–10 cm, 10–30 cm ja 30–60 cm) jokaisesta ruudusta. 10-vuotisen kokeen aikana kokonaiseroosio oli suorakylvössä noin 58 % vähäisempää kuin kynnössä, vaikka sekä salaoja- että pintavalunta olivat samansuuruiset. Suurten maan murujen ja maaperän orgaanisen hiilen määrä oli lisääntynyt pintakerroksessa, mutta vähentynyt syvemmällä (10 - 30 cm) suorakylvössä verrattuna kyntöön. Siten kokonaishiilivarasto (kerros 0 - 60 cm) suorakylvössä (108 ± 12 Mg C ha-1) oli hiukan alhaisempi kuin kynnössä (118 ± 9 Mg C ha-1). Tulokset osoittavat, että suorakylvöä voidaan suositella boreaalisten savimaiden eroosion torjuntaan, mutta maaperän hiilen kerryttäminen ja ilmastonmuutoksen hillitseminen suorakylvöllä edellyttää tekniikan kehittämistä edelleen, esim. lisäämällä peitekasvien käyttöä.

It is proved that intercropping in Mediterranean woody crops may have a positive impact in human wellbeing through socio-cultural and environmental (non-market) benefits it provides. However, little is known about how these benefits impact across the society, and more specifically, between men and women. Are all these socio-economic benefits equally perceived by men and women? In such context, the impact of gender on non-market benefits provided by intercropping has been assessed, namely, whether gender has an effect on the valuation of these non-market benefits, and, if it does, how much is it? A choice experiment has been employed to value the non-market benefits that intercropping provides: biodiversity enhancing, carbon sequestration increasing, erosion control, cultural heritage, and landscape beauty. A sample of 396 respondents (54% women) of the Region of Murcia (SE Spain) has been obtained. Some differences between women and men regarding the perceived impacts of these benefits have been found. These differences, which are positive and higher for women, refer to the highest level of the expected CO2 net balance from crop diversification, as well as its contribution to maintain tradition and cultural heritage and visual enjoying of agricultural landscape. Women are willingness to pay around 27% more than men for diversified cropping products. However, the results claims that the differences due to gender are only found in some of the benefits considered, but they cannot be generalizable for all the benefits provides by intercropping. They may be also used to the improvement of policy design regarding crop diversification in order to better maximize its impact in human wellbeing of both women and men.

Está demostrado que la asociación de cultivos en leñosos en el área mediterránea puede tener un impacto positivo en el bienestar humano a través de los beneficios socio-culturales y ambientales (de no-mercado) que proporciona. Sin embargo, se desconoce cómo el impacto de dichos beneficios se distribuye en la sociedad, y especialmente, entre hombres y mujeres. Así, se ha analizado el impacto del género en los beneficios de no-mercado de la asociación de cultivos, es decir, si el género tiene efectos en la valoración de estos beneficios, y, en el caso de que así sea, la cuantía del mismo. Para ello, se ha desarrollado un experimento de elección sobre una muestra de 396 individuos (54% mujeres) de la Región de Murcia (España) con el objetivo de valorar los beneficios de no-mercado que la asociación de cultivos proporciona: mejora de la biodiversidad, incremento del secuestro de carbono, control de la erosión, herencia cultural and belleza del paisaje. Los resultados muestran diferencias entre hombres y mujeres en relación al nivel superior del secuestro de carbono, así como en la contribución de la asociación de cultivos a mantener la herencia cultural y al disfrute del paisaje agrícola. De hecho, las mujeres están dispuestas a pagar en torno a un 27% más que los hombres por el consumo de productos procedentes de cultivos asociados que producen dichos beneficios. Sin embargo, estas diferencias sólo están presentes en algunos de los beneficios considerados, y no pueden ser generalizables a todos los beneficios producidos por la asociación de cultivos. Estos resultados pueden ser de utilidad para mejorar el diseño de políticas de diversificación de cultivos, especialmente con el fin de aumentar su impacto en el bienestar, tanto de hombres como mujeres.

Conventional agriculture is based on the use of mineral fertilizers and pesticides, which assume the deterioration of natural resistance to pests and diseases in plants, the progressive destruction of microbial flora and ground water pollution. In this respect, organic agriculture, which is based on the optimal use of natural resources, is able to obtain organic products while conserving soil fertility and respecting the environment. Consequently, we have analysed the long-term influence of conventional and organic management practices on the soil fertility, microbial communities and crop yield in horticultural crops. Organic management with compost addition instead of manures and fertigation with compost tea led to the increase of soil organic matter and nutrients such as K, B, Cu and Zn, as well as higher microbial biomass. Organic management with addition of manure led to lower soil quality and fertility than that with addition of compost and compost tea. Conventional management was the one with the lowest soil quality. Therefore, the use of compost uner organic farming results in a sustainable solution to increase carbon sequestration by soil and soil fertility, with reducued use of external inputs, while sustaining high yields after a period of stabilization after conversion from conventional farming

La agricultura convencional basada en la utilización de fertilizantes químicos sintéticos y pesticidas, supone el deterioro de la resiliencia natural de los cultivos a las plagas y enfermedades, destrucción progresiva de los microorganismos del suelo y la contaminación de las aguas. A este respecto, la agricultura ecológica, basada en la utilización óptima de los recursos naturales, puede obtener alimentos ecológicos a la vez que se conserva la calidad del suelo y se respeta el medio ambiente. Por ello, hemos analizado la influencia a largo plazo de prácticas de manejo convencional y ecológica en el contenido de materia orgánica del suelo, en la fertilidad del suelo y en la producción. La práctica orgánica con uso de compost y té de compost condujo al incremento de los valores de carbono orgánico del suelo y nutrientes como K, B, Cu y Zn, así como una mayor biomasa microbiana. Además de esto, no hubo diferencias en cuanto a la producción por el tipo de agricultura desarrollada. El sistema ecológico con adición de estiércol en vez de compost obtuvo menores valores de materia orgánica en el suelo y de fertilidad. El sistema convencional fue el que contribuye a largo plazo a una menor calidad del suelo. Por tanto, la agricultura ecológica con uso de compost en vez de estiércol supone una solución sostenible para el incremento del contenido en materia orgánica y fertilidad del suelo, mientras se reduce el uso de insumos externos que provocan contaminación de los sistemas, manteniendo una producción alta tras el periodo de estabilización tras la conversión desde sistema convencional

Crop diversification (intercrop with legumes/cereal) in rainfed almond trees resulted in an improvement in the soil quality at the short term (3 years) and remained or even increased slightly during the following eight years. These improvements in soil quality had an impact on physical (improvement of the soil structure as well as increases in the soil water retention capacity, the availability of water for the plant and the infiltration capacity), chemical (fertility) and biological (microbial activity) soil properties. Although during the first years of implementation no changes were detected in the almond crop yield with this practice after seven / eight years a positive effect of the diversification in the production of the almond was observed with respect to the monoculture. Therefore, crop diversification is recommended as a mitigation and adaptation strategy against climate change, as well as the long-term environmental and economic benefits generated by this practice.

La diversificación de cultivos (mezcla de leguminosas y gramíneas) intercalados con especies leñosas (almendro) supuso una mejora en la calidad del suelo a corto plazo (3 años) desde la implementación de la diversificación y se ha mantenido o incluso aumentado ligeramente durante los siguientes ocho años. Dichas mejoras en la calidad del suelo repercuten tanto en las propiedades físicas (mejora de la estructura del suelo así como aumentos en la capacidad de retención de agua del suelo, en la disponibilidad de agua para la planta y en la capacidad de infiltración) como químicas (fertilidad) y biológicas (actividad microbiana) del suelo. A pesar de que durante los primeros años de implementación no se detectaron cambios positivos de esta práctica en el rendimiento del cultivo de almendro, a partir de los siete/ocho años sí se observó un efecto positivo de la diversificación en la producción del almendro respecto al monocultivo. Se recomienda, por tanto, la diversificación de cultivos intercalados frente al monocultivo en leñosas de secano como estrategia de mitigación y adaptación frente al cambio climático, así como por los beneficios medioambientales y económicos a largo plazo que genera esta práctica.

Grapevine biomass growth was monitored in connection with carbon storage types in soil and in the deposits removed by soil erosion as part of the agroecological experiments during 2018 and 2019. Phenometry was carried out interpreting segmented images to follow changes in biomass. Crop growth could be best described by the Richards growth function. The distinction between grapevine and intercrop growth, however, requires further refinement in image analysis. In the laboratory TOC, Ntotal values were established for both the soil and the plant organs as well as for the eroded sediments. The analyses of carbon cycle also involved greenhouse gas emission and net photosynthesis measurements. Looking at the change of Leaf Area Index (LAI) over the growing period, image analysis pointed out the role of cut shoots from pruning in the C and N cycles. Maximum leaf area (at ripening) for guyot cultivation technique was extimated at 7,840 m2 ha-1. Soil loss by erosion was established by sediment traps at the end of vinestock rows. The grain size distribution analysis led to the remarkable result that as erosion proceeds, the ratio of the sand fraction increases but remains within the range for the textural class of loam. Organic matter contents grow to 38 g kg-1. The rate of soil erosion is higher in ploughed than in grassed interrows by orders of magnitude. During cultivation the concentration of runoff in tractor tracks should be avoided and the intensification of soil erosion prevented.

A szőlő biomassza növekedését együtt vizsgáltuk a talajban történő széntárolással és az erózió során lemosódott szereves anyaggal. Az agroökológiai kísérletek 2018-ban és 2019-ben folytak. A biomassza változását képelemzéses fenometriai módszerrel vizsgáltuk. A szőlő fejlődése leginkább a Richards-féle trendfüggvénnyel volt leírható. A szőlő és a sorok közé vetett növények fejlődésének elkülönítése a képanalízis további fnomítását igényli. A laboratóriumban a talaj szerves szén- és N-tartalmát vizsgáltunk, ugyanezt a növényi szervekre és a lepusztult hordalékra is megnéztük. A szénkörforgalom feltárása érdekében mértük az üvegházhatású gázok kibocsátását és a nettó fotoszintézist. A levélfelület-index (LAI) monitorozása kimjutatta a metszéssel keletkező nyesedékek nagy szerepét a C és N ciklusban. Guyot művelés esetén az éréskor vett LAI maximális értéke 7,840 m2 volt hektáronként. A talajerózióból származó, üledékcsapdákkal felfogott talajhordalék elemzése kimutatta, hogy az erózió előrehaladtával a homokfrakció aránya növekszik, de a vályog fizikai féleség határán belül. A hordalék szervesanyag-tartalma élérte a 38 g értéket kg-onként. A talajerózió a felszántott sorközökben több nagyságrenddel gyorsabb volt, mint a füvesített sorközökben. A művelést úgy kell megszervezni, hogy a traktornyomokban ne gyűljön össze a lefolyó víz, ne erősödjön fel a talajerózió.

At Groningen, the Netherlands, we investigated what is the state of the art of different agricultural soils under long term organic and conventional management. Knowing that soil quality is dependent on the management, therefore type of inputs, and the crop soort play important roles. Thus, we aimed at assessing soil quality conditions through earthworms and soil microbial diversity together with physicochemical characterization, as well the content of pesticide residues in soils was determined; we searched at identifying relationships between pesticide residues and earthworms or microbiome abundance/diversity, as well as pathogens or beneficial microorganisms. The study was carried out in 12 farms at Groningen, The Netherlands. The sampling took place before the application of agrochemicals in April 2018. Three to sixteen pesticides residues were found per farm, from where DDT, prosulforcab and AMPA (first metabolite of glyphosate) were detected in all soil samples. Microbial biomass and earthworm’s abundance were inversely proportional to the number and concentration of pesticides; the highest bacterial diversity was obtained in those farms with high manure application, and the highest earthworm’s diversity was observed in organic farms, where soil organic carbon was also high, and less or no pathogen microorganisms were found, and beneficial microorganisms were well present.

The agricultural sector faces a series of environmental challenges such as water and soil pollution, erosion or biodiversity loss, especially in monoculture woody systems. Alternatively, crop diversification, and in particular intercropping, is seen as an eligible option to mitigate these negative impacts and to enhance agricultural ecosystem services. However, despite the benefits it provides, most of these services are non-marketed. The integration of all agricultural outputs from intercropping, both marketed and non-marketed, is required to better understand the overall impacts of certain agricultural measures. To overcome this challenge, a choice experiment has been developed to value the environmental and socio-cultural benefits that intercropping provides: biodiversity enhancing, carbon sequestration increasing, erosion control, cultural heritage, and landscape beauty. This method required 396 households to be surveyed (Region of Murcia – SE Spain). The value of these non-market benefits could reach 940€/ha/year and 1300€/ha/year in the case of intercropping in rainfed and irrigated woody agroecosystems, respectively. These values shed light to the existing social demand for the benefits provided by intercropping practices, which goes beyond food provision and which could serve to improve the policy design regarding crop diversification.

The technique of no-tillage or sod-seeding (NT) consists in sowing directly, through special seeders, on the untilled soil, in the presence, or not, of the residues of the previous crop. Sowing is preceded by the application of a desiccant .

In 1995, in the CREA-Cerealicoltura e Colture Industriali Research Center, a long-term experiment was set up to compare NT with a plowing conventional tillage (CT) on the productivity and soil quality in a monocropping of durum wheat.

As for long-term productivity (1995-2019), CT and NT showed comparable yields, with a better performance of CT in 17 out of 24 years. However, NT even in the years with extreme rainy events, managed to be competitive. This may be due to the better quality of the top-soil (0-10 cm).

After 22 years, the bulk density of NT soils is higher than CT soils, as well as organic matter (+ 10%), with a favorable action on soil structure and surface infiltration capacity. NT topsoil was characterized also by a higher biological activity. No difference between NT and CT was found in the 10 to 30 cm layer for most of the chemical and physical characteristics. Also biological activity was higher in NT soils.

In conclusion, the no-tillage technique represents a good alternative to traditional plowing for durum wheat in Mediterranean traditional cultivation areas. It can be seen also as a strategy for adapting to climate change, especially in response to the increasingly extreme events where rain is concentrated in a few events with great intensity.

La tecnica della non lavorazione o semina diretta (NL) consiste nel seminare direttamente, tramite delle seminatrici speciali, sul terreno non lavorato, in presenza, o meno, dei residui della coltura precedente. Normalmente la semina viene preceduta dall’applicazione di un disseccante .

Nel 1995 è stato messo a punto un esperimento di lungo termine nel Centro di ricerca CREA-Cerealicoltura e Colture Industriali per confrontare l’effetto sulla produttività e sulla qualità del suolodella non lavorazione con la lavorazione convenzionale (LC-aratura) in una monosuccessione di frumento duro.

Nel lungo periodo (1995-2019), LC e NL hanno mostrato rese comparabili, con una performance migliore di LC in 17 anni su 24. NL, anche nelle annate con eventi piovosi estremi, è riuscito ad essere competitivo, forse per una migliore qualità dello strato superficiale del suolo (0-10 cm).

Infatti, dopo 22 anni, la densità apparente dei suoli NL è maggiore di quelli LC, così come la sostanza organica (+10%), con una azione favorevole sulla struttura del suolo e la capacità di infiltrazione superficiale. Il suolo NT ha anche una maggiore attività biologica. Nello strato da 10 a 30 cm non è stata trovata nessuna differenza tra NL e LC.

In conclusione, la tecnica della non lavorazione rappresenta una buona alternativa alla lavorazione tradizionale per la cerealicoltura meridionale, anche come strategia di adattamento ai cambiamenti climatici, soprattutto in risposta alle piogge sempre più concentrate in pochi eventi con grande intensità e di mitigazione dei cambiamenti climatici.

The expansion of European agriculture is being limited by the environmental impacts associated with extreme levels of farming intensification. Consequently, farmers are increasingly demanding crop practices and strategies that allow maintaining their income while conserving the environmental resource base. It is a fact that crop diversification is one of these strategies but it is also true that more research is needed to adapt them to the very different crops and agricultural systems of Europe. Consequently, recommendations about the most adequate crop diversifications and associated environmentally-sound farming practices should account for the specificities of each crop and region. After an exhaustive analysis of the existing literature and the consultation to different relevant stakeholders (farmers, public administration, scientifics, NGOs), we concluded that the best crop diversification for olive groves under Mediterranean semiarid climate is the intercropping in the alleys. These crops will be crops for animal feed, vetch and oat mixture; aromatic plants such as lavender, as an industrial products; and saffron as a food crop. In addition, the most adequate farming practices for the specific environmental problems of the area mulching with crushed offcuts (pruning,etc.), zero tillage and cover crops in the tree rows. These preliminary results will be considered as definitive once they have been tested in field experiments to validate their effectiveness.

La agricultura europea está viendo cómo se limita su expansión debido a los problemas ambientales asociados a los niveles intensivos de explotación a los que se ha llegado. Los agricultores demandan más estrategias y formas de cultivar que les permitan respetar los recursos y el medio ambiente, base de su economía. Es un hecho que la diversificación de los cultivos es una de esas estrategias, pero es necesaria más investigación para adaptarla a los diferentes cultivos y condiciones de cada país. Por ello, es necesario tener en cuenta las problemáticas de cada zona a la hora de recomendar el tipo de diversificación más adecuada y las prácticas culturales a realizar para minimizarlas. Tras un análisis bibliográfico y la consulta a diferentes agentes implicados (agricultores, administración pública, investigadores y ONG), se ha llegado a la conclusión de que la mejor diversificación para olivar en clima mediterráneo semiárido es la instalación de cultivos asociados intercalados entre las calles de los olivos. Dichos cultivos serán cultivos para alimentación animal, mezcla de veza y avena, plantas aromáticas, la lavanda, como producto industrial, y el azafrán, como cultivo destinado a la alimentación humana. Asimismo, las prácticas culturales más adecuadas para los problemas ambientales específicos de la zona serán acolchados con restos de poda, labranza cero y cobertura de las calles entre los olivos. Estos resultados se mostrarán como definitivos después de ser ensayados en campo y contrastada su efectividad.

The expansion of European agriculture is being limited by the environmental impacts associated with extreme levels of farming intensification. Consequently, farmers are increasingly demanding crop practices and strategies that allow maintaining their income while conserving the environmental resource base. It is a fact that crop diversification is one of these strategies but it is also true that more research is needed to adapt them to the very different crops and agricultural systems of Europe. Consequently, recommendations about the most adequate crop diversifications and associated environmentally-sound farming practices should account for the specificities of each crop and region. After an exhaustive analysis of the existing literature and the consultation to different relevant stakeholders (farmers, public administration, scientifics, NGOs), we concluded that the best crop diversification for rainfed cereals under Mediterranean semiarid climate is the crop in rotation. Such crops can be the combinations of barley, wheat, vetch, pea and/or sunflower. In addition, the most adequate farming practices for the specific environmental problems of the area are the addition of organic matter (manure, compost, etc.), minimun tillage and integrated pest control. These preliminary results will be considered as definitive once they have been tested in field experiments to validate their effectiveness.

La agricultura europea está viendo cómo se limita su expansión debido a los problemas ambientales asociados a los niveles intensivos de explotación a los que se ha llegado. Los agricultores demandan más estrategias y formas de cultivar que les permitan respetar los recursos y el medio ambiente, base de su economía. Es un hecho que la diversificación de los cultivos es una de esas estrategias, pero es necesaria más investigación para adaptarla a los diferentes cultivos y condiciones de cada país. Por ello, es necesario tener en cuenta las problemáticas de cada zona a la hora de recomendar el tipo de diversificación más adecuada y las prácticas culturales a realizar para minimizarlas. Tras un análisis bibliográfico y la consulta a diferentes agentes implicados (agricultores, administración pública, investigadores y ONG), se ha llegado a la conclusión de que la mejor diversificación para cereal en secano en clima mediterráneo semiárido es la rotación de cultivos. Dichos cultivos pueden ser las combinaciones de cebada/ trigo/veza/guisante/girasol . Asimismo, las prácticas culturales más adecuadas para los problemas ambientales específicos de la zona serían el aporte de materia orgánica mediante estercolado o compostaje, mínimo laboreo o la lucha integrada de plagas. Estos resultados se mostrarán como definitivos después de ser ensayados en campo y contrastada su efectividad.

The expansion of European agriculture is being limited by the environmental impacts associated with extreme levels of farming intensification. Consequently, farmers are increasingly demanding crop practices and strategies that allow maintaining their income while conserving the environmental resource base. It is a fact that crop diversification is one of these strategies but it is also true that more research is needed to adapt them to the very different crops and agricultural systems of Europe. Consequently, recommendations about the most adequate crop diversifications and associated environmentally-sound farming practices should account for the specificities of each crop and region. After an exhaustive analysis of the existing literature and the consultation to different relevant stakeholders (farmers, public administration, scientifics, NGOs), we concluded that the best crop diversification for irrigated cereals under Mediterranean semiarid climate is the use of multiple cropping. Such crops can be the combinations of barely with maize or vetch/pea with maize. In addition, the most adequate farming practices for the specific environmental problems of the area are the sprinkler irrigation, precision agriculture to optimise fertilisation and integrated pest control. These preliminary results will be considered as definitive once they have been tested in field experiments to validate their effectiveness.

La agricultura europea está viendo cómo se limita su expansión debido a los problemas ambientales asociados a los niveles intensivos de explotación a los que se ha llegado. Los agricultores demandan más estrategias y formas de cultivar que les permitan respetar los recursos y el medio ambiente, base de su economía. Es un hecho que la diversificación de los cultivos es una de esas estrategias, pero es necesaria más investigación para adaptarla a los diferentes cultivos y condiciones de cada país. Por ello, es necesario tener en cuenta las problemáticas de cada zona a la hora de recomendar el tipo de diversificación más adecuada y las prácticas culturales a realizar para minimizarlas. Tras un análisis bibliográfico y la consulta a diferentes agentes implicados (agricultores, administración pública, investigadores y ONG), se ha llegado a la conclusión de que la mejor diversificación para cereal en regadío en clima mediterráneo semiárido es el uso de cultivos múltiples. Dichos cultivos pueden ser las combinaciones de cebada con maíz o veza/guisante con maíz . Asimismo, las prácticas culturales más adecuadas para los problemas ambientales específicos de la zona serían riego por aspersión, uso de agricultura de precisión para la fertilización o la lucha integrada de plagas. Estos resultados se mostrarán como definitivos después de ser ensayados en campo y contrastada su efectividad.

The expansion of European agriculture is being limited by the environmental impacts associated with extreme levels of farming intensification. Consequently, farmers are increasingly demanding crop practices and strategies that allow maintaining their income while conserving the environmental resource base. It is a fact that crop diversification is one of these strategies but it is also true that more research is needed to adapt them to the very different crops and agricultural systems of Europe. Consequently, recommendations about the most adequate crop diversifications and associated environmentally-sound farming practices should account for the specificities of each crop and region. After an exhaustive analysis of the existing literature and the consultation to different relevant stakeholders (farmers, public administration, scientifics, NGOs), we concluded that the best crop diversification for horticultural crops under Panonnian climate is the crop in rotation. Such rotated crops can be phacelia (Phacelia tanacetifolia) or Spring barley (Hordeum vulgare). In addition, the most adequate farming practices for the specific environmental problems of the area are the use of harrow discs to incorporate crop residues into the soil, the use of green manure and tillage without heavy implements. These preliminary results will be considered as definitive once they have been tested in field experiments to validate their effectiveness.

Az európai mezőgazdaság fejlődését akadályozzák azok a környezeti hatások, amelyek a művelés intenzifikálásának szélsőséges mértékéből fakadnak. A gazdálkodók tehát egyre inkább olyan gyakorlatot és stratégiákat követelnek meg, amelyek lehetővé teszik jövedelmi szintjük fenntartását és egyidejűleg megőrzik a környezeti erőforrásokat. Tény, hogy a terménydiverzifikáció az egyik ilyen stratégia, de az is igaz, hogy további kutatások szükségesek, hogy alkalmazzák igen különböző terményekre és európai mezőgazdasági rendszerekre. Következésképpen a legmegfelelőbb terménydiverzifikációs megoldások és a hozzájuk kapcsolódó, környezetbarát művelési gyakorlat szükségesek az egyes termények és régiók szempontjából. A létező szakirodalom alapos áttekintése és az érintettekkel (gazdálkodók, közigazgatási szakemberek, kutatók, nem-kormányzati szervek) folytatott konzultációk után azt a következtetést vontuk le, hogy a legjobb diverzifikáció a kertgazdálkodási termények számára, pannón éghajlaton a vetésforgó. A vetésforgóban termesztendő növények a facélia (Phacelia tanacetifolia) vagy a tavaszi árpa (Hordeum vulgare). Továbbá, a legalkalmasabb művelés a terület sajátos környezeti problémáinak megoldására a tárcsázás, a növénymaradványok beforgatása a talajba, a zöldtrágya használata, valamint a nehéz gépeket nélkülöző művelés. Ezek az előzetes eredmények csak akkor tekinthetők véglegesnek, ha a terepi kísérletek alátámasztják őket, bebizonyítják hatékonyságukat.

The expansion of European agriculture is being limited by the environmental impacts associated with extreme levels of farming intensification. Consequently, farmers are increasingly demanding crop practices and strategies that allow maintaining their income while conserving the environmental resource base. It is a fact that crop diversification is one of these strategies but it is also true that more research is needed to adapt them to the very different crops and agricultural systems of Europe. Consequently, recommendations about the most adequate crop diversifications and associated environmentally-sound farming practices should account for the specificities of each crop and region. After an exhaustive analysis of the existing literature and the consultation to different relevant stakeholders (farmers, public administration, scientifics, NGOs), we concluded that the best crop diversification for fruits trees under Panonnian climate is the intercropping in the alleys. Such crops can be fodder like Trifolium repens or Medicago lupulina, or aromatic and medicinal plants. In addition, the most adequate farming practices for the specific environmental problems of the area are the addition of organic matter (manure, compost, etc.), mulching (with crushed offcuts from prunning.rtc) and the use of integrated pest control. These preliminary results will be considered as definitive once they have been tested in field experiments to validate their effectiveness.

Az európai mezőgazdaság fejlődését akadályozzák azok a környezeti hatások, amelyek a művelés intenzifikálásának szélsőséges mértékéből fakadnak. A gazdálkodók tehát egyre inkább olyan gyakorlatot és stratégiákat követelnek meg, amelyek lehetővé teszik jövedelmi szintjük fenntartását és egyidejűleg megőrzik a környezeti erőforrásokat. Tény, hogy a terménydiverzifikáció az egyik ilyen stratégia, de az is igaz, hogy további kutatások szükségesek, hogy alkalmazzák igen különböző terményekre és európai mezőgazdasági rendszerekre. Következésképpen a legmegfelelőbb terménydiverzifikációs megoldások és a hozzájuk kapcsolódó, környezetbarát művelési gyakorlat szükségesek az egyes termények és régiók szempontjából. A létező szakirodalom alapos áttekintése és az érintettekkel (gazdálkodók, közigazgatási szakemberek, kutatók, nem-kormányzati szervek) folytatott konzultációk után azt a következtetést vontuk le, hogy a legjobb diverzifikáció a gyümölcsösökben, pannón éghajlaton a fasorok közötti köztes vetés. Erre alkalmas takarmánynövények a here (Trifolium repens) és a lucerna (Medicago lupulina) vagy aromás, ill. gyógynövények. Ezen kívül a legmegfelelőbb művelésmódok a terület környezeti problémáinak leküzdésére: szerves anyag hozzáadása (szervestrágya, komposzt stb.), a talajtakarás (nyesedékkel stb.) és az integrált növényvédelem alkalmazása. Ezek az előzetes eredmények csak akkor tekinthetők véglegesnek, ha a terepi kísérletek alátámasztják őket, bebizonyítják hatékonyságukat.

The expansion of European agriculture is being limited by the environmental impacts associated with extreme levels of farming intensification. Consequently, farmers are increasingly demanding crop practices and strategies that allow maintaining their income while conserving the environmental resource base. It is a fact that crop diversification is one of these strategies but it is also true that more research is needed to adapt them to the very different crops and agricultural systems of Europe. Consequently, recommendations about the most adequate crop diversifications and associated environmentally-sound farming practices should account for the specificities of each crop and region. After an exhaustive analysis of the existing literature and the consultation to different relevant stakeholders (farmers, public administration, scientifics, NGOs), we concluded that the best crop diversification for vineyards under panonian climate is intercropping in the alleys. Such crops can be the combination of mixture of legumes for livestock and oats, alfalfa and / or vetch for cattle or game. In addition, the most adequate farming practices for the specific environmental problems of the area are mulching (with crushed offcuts from prunning.rtc), use of green manure and construction of slopes or margins with vegetation. These preliminary results will be considered as definitive once they have been tested in field experiments to validate their effectiveness.

Az európai mezőgazdaság fejlődését akadályozzák azok a környezeti hatások, amelyek a művelés intenzifikálásának szélsőséges mértékéből fakadnak. A gazdálkodók tehát egyre inkább olyan gyakorlatot és stratégiákat követelnek meg, amelyek lehetővé teszik jövedelmi szintjük fenntartását és egyidejűleg megőrzik a környezeti erőforrásokat. Tény, hogy a terménydiverzifikáció az egyik ilyen stratégia, de az is igaz, hogy további kutatások szükségesek, hogy alkalmazzák igen különböző terményekre és európai mezőgazdasági rendszerekre. Következésképpen a legmegfelelőbb terménydiverzifikációs megoldások és a hozzájuk kapcsolódó, környezetbarát művelési gyakorlat szükségesek az egyes termények és régiók szempontjából. A létező szakirodalom alapos áttekintése és az érintettekkel (gazdálkodók, közigazgatási szakemberek, kutatók, nem-kormányzati szervek) folytatott konzultációk után azt a következtetést vontuk le, hogy a legjobb diverzifikáció a pannón régió szőlőültetvényeire a sorközök bevetése fedőnövénnyel. Ilyen növények lehetnek hüvelyes takarmányok, zab, alfalfa és/vagy bükköny szarvasmarhák vagy vadak részére. Továbbá, a legkedvezőbb talajművelési mód a sajátos környezeti problémák megoldására a minimális szántás, a talajborítás (összeaprított nyesedékkel stb.), valmint zöldtrágya felhasználása, ill. a természetes növényzet megőrzése a táblák szélén. Ezek az előzetes eredmények csak akkor tekinthetők véglegesnek, ha a terepi kísérletek alátámasztják őket, bebizonyítják hatékonyságukat.

The expansion of European agriculture is being limited by the environmental impacts associated with extreme levels of farming intensification. Consequently, farmers are increasingly demanding crop practices and strategies that allow maintaining their income while conserving the environmental resource base. It is a fact that crop diversification is one of these strategies but it is also true that more research is needed to adapt them to the very different crops and agricultural systems of Europe. Consequently, recommendations about the most adequate crop diversifications and associated environmentally-sound farming practices should account for the specificities of each crop and region. After an exhaustive analysis of the existing literature and the consultation to different relevant stakeholders (farmers, public administration, scientifics, NGOs), we concluded that the best crop diversification for fodder cultivation under Atlantic climate is intercroping. Intercropping can be performed with wheat, clover, broad bean, vetch, flax, phacelia, oat, pea, corn, phacelia or buckwheat. In addition, the most adequate farming practices for the specific environmental problems of the area are minimun tillage, the addition of organic matter (manure, compost, etc.) and maintainance of vegetation cover (natural or cover crops). These preliminary results will be considered as definitive once they have been tested in field experiments to validate their effectiveness.

De uitbreiding van het Europese landbouwareaal wordt gelimiteerd door de impact op het milieu die gerelateerd is met intensivering. Als gevolg hiervan is er een toenemende behoefte aan landbouw praktijken en strategieën die het inkomen waarborgen én de natuurlijke bronnen conserveren. Gewasdiversificatie is een van deze strategieën, maar er is meer onderzoeknodig om dit toe te kunnen passen op de vele verschillende gewassen en landbouwsystemen in Europa. Hierom is het van belang dat aanbevelingen over diversificatie en de bijbehorende omgevings-vriendelijke praktijken aangepast worden voor specifieke gewassen en regio's. Op basis van een uitgebreide literatuur analyse en raadpleging van relevante partijen (agrariërs, overheden, experts en Ngo’s) concluderen we dat tussenteelt de beste gewas diversificatie is voor voedergewassen in een Atlantisch klimaat. Tussenteelt kan worden toegepast bij tarwe, klaver, tuinboon, wikke, vlas, haver, erwt, maïs, phacelia of boekweit. Daarnaast zijn minimale grondbewerking, verhogen van de organische stof toevoer (vaste mest, compost etc.) en permanente gewasbedekking (groenbedekkers), de beste maatregelen voor specifieke milieuproblemen van de regio. Deze voorlopige resultaten zullen definitief worden gemaakt, wanneer ze getest zijn in veldexperimenten om de effectiviteit te valideren.

The expansion of European agriculture is being limited by the environmental impacts associated with extreme levels of farming intensification. Consequently, farmers are increasingly demanding crop practices and strategies that allow maintaining their income while conserving the environmental resource base. It is a fact that crop diversification is one of these strategies but it is also true that more research is needed to adapt them to the very different crops and agricultural systems of Europe. Consequently, recommendations about the most adequate crop diversifications and associated environmentally-sound farming practices should account for the specificities of each crop and region. After an exhaustive analysis of the existing literature and the consultation to different relevant stakeholders (farmers, public administration, scientifics, NGOs), we concluded that the best crop diversification for irrigated cereals under Mediterranean north climate is the rotation of crops. Such crops can be tomato and maize. In addition, the most adequate farming practices for the specific environmental problems of the area are use of precision agriculture to optimise fertilisation, the addition of organic matter (manure, compost, etc.) and use of green manure. These preliminary results will be considered as definitive once they have been tested in field experiments to validate their effectiveness.

L'espansione dell'agricoltura Europea è limitata dagli impatti ambientali associati con livelli spesso estremi di intensificazione in agricoltura. Di conseguenza, gli agricoltori richiedono sempre più spesso pratiche colturali e strategie che consentano il mantenimento del reddito conservando le risorse ambientali. Di fatto, la diversificazione colturale è una di queste strategie, ma è anche vero che è necessaria più ricerca per adattare la diversificazione alla molteplicità delle colture e dei sistemi agricoli in Europa. Di conseguenza, le raccomandazioni per la scelta delle diversificazioni colturali più adeguate e delle relative pratiche di gestione eco-compatibili, dovrebbero tenere conto delle specificità di ogni coltura e regione. Dopo un'analisi dettagliata della letteratura esistente e il coinvolgimento dei principali portatori d'interesse (agricoltori, amministrazioni pubbliche, ricercatori, ONG), possiamo concludere che la rotazione delle colture è la migliore diversificazione colturale per i cereali irrigui nelle condizioni climatiche del nord Mediterraneo. Tra queste si segnalano il pomodoro e il mais. Inoltre, le pratiche agricole più adeguate per gli specifici problemi ambientali dell'area sono l'agricoltura di precisione per ottimizzare la fertilizzazione, l'apporto di sostanza organica (letame, compost, ecc.) ed il sovescio verde. Questi risultati preliminari saranno considerati definitivi dopo che le prove sperimentali di campo ne avranno validato l'efficacia.

The expansion of European agriculture is being limited by the environmental impacts associated with extreme levels of farming intensification. Consequently, farmers are increasingly demanding crop practices and strategies that allow maintaining their income while conserving the environmental resource base. It is a fact that crop diversification is one of these strategies but it is also true that more research is needed to adapt them to the very different crops and agricultural systems of Europe. Consequently, recommendations about the most adequate crop diversifications and associated environmentally-sound farming practices should account for the specificities of each crop and region. After an exhaustive analysis of the existing literature and the consultation to different relevant stakeholders (farmers, public administration, scientifics, NGOs), we concluded that the best crop diversification for rainfed cereals under Mediterranean north climate is the rotation of crops. Such crops can be alfalfa and faba bean. In addition, the most adequate farming practices for the specific environmental problems of the area are the addition of organic matter (manure, compost, etc.), use of green manure and changes in the rotation species and length. These preliminary results will be considered as definitive once they have been tested in field experiments to validate their effectiveness.

L'espansione dell'agricoltura Europea è limitata dagli impatti ambientali associati con livelli spesso estremi di intensificazione in agricoltura. Di conseguenza, gli agricoltori richiedono sempre più spesso pratiche colturali e strategie che consentano il mantenimento del reddito conservando le risorse ambientali. Di fatto, la diversificazione colturale è una di queste strategie, ma è anche vero che è necessaria più ricerca per adattare la diversificazione alla molteplicità delle colture e dei sistemi agricoli in Europa. Di conseguenza, le raccomandazioni per la scelta delle diversificazioni colturali più adeguate e delle relative pratiche di gestione eco-compatibili, dovrebbero tenere conto delle specificità di ogni coltura e regione. Dopo un'analisi dettagliata della letteratura esistente e il coinvolgimento dei principali portatori d'interesse (agricoltori, amministrazioni pubbliche, ricercatori, ONG), possiamo concludere che la rotazione delle colture è la migliore diversificazione colturale per i cereali non irrigui nelle condizioni climatiche del nord Mediterraneo. Tra queste si segnalano l’erba medica e la fava. Inoltre, le pratiche agricole più adeguate per gli specifici problemi ambientali dell'area sono l'apporto di sostanza organica (letame, compost, ecc.), il sovescio verde e la modifica delle rotazioni colturali come specie e durata della rotazione. Questi risultati preliminari saranno considerati definitivi dopo che le prove sperimentali di campo ne avranno validato l'efficacia.

The expansion of European agriculture is being limited by the environmental impacts associated with extreme levels of farming intensification. Consequently, farmers are increasingly demanding crop practices and strategies that allow maintaining their income while conserving the environmental resource base. It is a fact that crop diversification is one of these strategies but it is also true that more research is needed to adapt them to the very different crops and agricultural systems of Europe. Consequently, recommendations about the most adequate crop diversifications and associated environmentally-sound farming practices should account for the specificities of each crop and region. After an exhaustive analysis of the existing literature and the consultation to different relevant stakeholders (farmers, public administration, scientifics, NGOs), we concluded that the best crop diversification for fodder cultivation under Boreal climate is the use of crop rotations. Such crops can be the combination of legumes and cereals or legumes and grass. In addition, the most adequate farming practices for the specific environmental problems of the area are the addition of organic matter (manure, compost, etc.), maintainance of the vegetation in the edges of the plots and minimun tillage. These preliminary results will be considered as definitive once they have been tested in field experiments to validate their effectiveness.

Eurooppalaisen maanviljelyn laajentamista rajoittavat viljelyn tehostumiseen liittyvät ympäristövaikutukset. Sen johdosta viljelijät odottavat viljelykäytäntöjä ja strategioita, jotka mahdollistavat sekä tulojen että ympäristöresurssien säilyttämisen. Tiedetään, että viljelyn monimuotoistaminen on yksi näistä strategioista, mutta tarvitaan lisää tutkimusta menetelmien sopeuttamiseksi Euroopan erilaisiin viljelyjärjestelmiin. Suosituksien soveltuvimmista viljelyn monimuotoistamistavoista ja niihin liittyvistä ympäristöllisesti kestävistä käytännöistä tulisi perustua alueellisten erityispiirteiden huomioon ottamiseen. Kattavan kirjallisuusanalyysin ja toimijoiden (viljelijöitä, hallintoa, tieteentekijöitä, kansalaisjärjestöjä) kuulemisen jälkeen tulimme johtopäätökseen, että Suomen oloihin soveltuvin tapa monimuotoistaa rehun tuotantoa on sisällyttää palkokasveja viljelykiertoihin sekä viljakasvien että nurmikasvien kanssa. Lisäksi todettiin, että sopeutetuista viljelykäytännöistä soveltuvimmat ovat orgaanisen aineksen lisääminen (lanta, komposti ym.), monimuotoisen kasvillisuuden ylläpitäminen pientareilla sekä muokkauksen vähentäminen. Nämä ovat kyselyn tuloksia, ja menetelmien soveltuvuudesta ja tehosta saadaan lisätietoa hankkeen aikana.

The expansion of European agriculture is being limited by the environmental impacts associated with extreme levels of farming intensification. Consequently, farmers are increasingly demanding crop practices and strategies that allow maintaining their income while conserving the environmental resource base. It is a fact that crop diversification is one of these strategies but it is also true that more research is needed to adapt them to the very different crops and agricultural systems of Europe. Consequently, recommendations about the most adequate crop diversifications and associated environmentally-sound farming practices should account for the specificities of each crop and region. After an exhaustive analysis of the existing literature and the consultation to different relevant stakeholders (farmers (winemakers), public administration, researchers, NGOs), we concluded that the best crop diversification for vineyards under continental climate is the simultaneous cultivation underneath the grapevines and greening the driving lanes. Crops underneath the vine can be e.g. aromatic herbs as industrial products or food, as vegetation for the driving lanes a mixture of poaceae and cruciferae seem appropriate. In addition, the most adequate farming practices for the specific environmental problems of the area are the minimum tillage, mulching (with crushed offcuts from prunning, etc) and maintain the natural vegetation of the edges of the plots. These preliminary results will be considered as definitive once they have been tested in field experiments to validate their effectiveness.

Die Expansion der Landwirtschaft in Europa ist wegen der Belastungen der natürlichen Ressourcen durch extreme Intensivierung begrenzt. Folglich fordern Landwirte zunehmend Anbaupraktiken und -strategien, die es ermöglichen, ihr Einkommen und gleichzeitig die Umweltressourcenbasis zu erhalten. Fakt ist, dass die Diversifizierung von Kulturpflanzen eine dieser Strategien ist, jedoch ist mehr Forschung erforderlich, um sie an die sehr unterschiedlichen Kulturpflanzen und landwirtschaftlichen Systeme in Europa anzupassen. Folglich sollten die Empfehlungen über die am besten geeigneten Anbaudiversifizierungen und die damit verbundenen umweltgerechten Anbaumethoden den Besonderheiten jeder Kultur und Region Rechnung tragen. Nach einer gründlichen Analyse der vorhandenen Literatur und der Konsultation mit verschiedenen relevanten Interessengruppen (Landwirte (Winzer), öffentliche Verwaltung, Wissenschaftler, NGOs) kamen wir zu dem Schluss, dass die beste Anbaudiversifizierung für Weinberge unter kontinentalem Klima eine simultane Bewirtschaftung unter den Weinstöcken mit gleichzeitiger Begrünung der Fahrgassen ist. Feldfrüchte unter den Weinstöcken können z.B. aromatische Kräuter als industrielle Produkte oder Nahrungsmittel sein, zur Begrünung der Fahrgassen eignen sich z.B. Süßgräser und Kreuzblüter. Als am besten geeignete landwirtschaftliche Praxis gegen die spezifischen Umweltprobleme der Region werden die minimale Bodenbearbeitung, das Mulchen (mit zerkleinertem Rebschnitt) und die Erhaltung der natürlichen Vegetation der Parzellenränder genannt. Diese vorläufigen Ergebnisse werden in Feldexperimenten getestet, um ihre Wirksamkeit zu validieren.

The expansion of European agriculture is being limited by the environmental impacts associated with extreme levels of farming intensification. Consequently, farmers are increasingly demanding crop practices and strategies that allow maintaining their income while conserving the environmental resource base. It is a fact that crop diversification is one of these strategies but it is also true that more research is needed to adapt them to the very different crops and agricultural systems of Europe. Consequently, recommendations about the most adequate crop diversifications and associated environmentally-sound farming practices should account for the specificities of each crop and region. After an exhaustive analysis of the existing literature and the consultation to different relevant stakeholders (farmers, public administration, scientifics, NGOs), we concluded that the best crop diversification for fruit trees under Mediterranean semiarid climate is the intercropping in the alleys. Such crops can be horticultural crops for food (annual crops) or aromatic plants such as thyme, lavender or rosemary for industrial products or food (perennial). In addition, the most adequate farming practices for the specific environmental problems of the area are the addition of organic matter (manure, compost, etc.), use of green manure and integrated pest control. These preliminary results will be considered as definitive once they have been tested in field experiments to validate their effectiveness.

La agricultura europea está viendo cómo se limita su expansión debido a los problemas ambientales asociados a los niveles intensivos de explotación a los que se ha llegado. Los agricultores demandan más estrategias y formas de cultivar que les permitan respetar los recursos y el medio ambiente, base de su economía. Es un hecho que la diversificación de los cultivos es una de esas estrategias, pero es necesaria más investigación para adaptarla a los diferentes cultivos y condiciones de cada país. Por ello, es necesario tener en cuenta las problemáticas de cada zona a la hora de recomendar el tipo de diversificación más adecuada y las prácticas culturales a realizar para minimizarlas. Tras un análisis bibliográfico y la consulta a diferentes agentes implicados (agricultores, administración pública, investigadores y ONG), se ha llegado a la conclusión de que la mejor diversificación de frutales en clima mediterráneo semiárido es la instalación de cultivos asociados intercalados entre las calles de los frutales. Dichos cultivos pueden ser hortícolas (cultivos anuales) o aromáticas como el tomillo, la lavanda o el romero como producto industrial o para alimentación (cultivo permanente). Asimismo, las prácticas culturales más adecuadas para los problemas ambientales específicos de la zona serían el aporte de materia orgánica mediante estercolado o compostaje, el uso de abono verde y la lucha intedrada de plagas. Estos resultados se mostrarán como definitivos después de ser ensayados en campo y contrastada su efectividad.

The expansion of European agriculture is being limited by the environmental impacts associated with extreme levels of farming intensification. Consequently, farmers are increasingly demanding crop practices and strategies that allow maintaining their income while conserving the environmental resource base. It is a fact that crop diversification is one of these strategies but it is also true that more research is needed to adapt them to the very different crops and agricultural systems of Europe. Consequently, recommendations about the most adequate crop diversifications and associated environmentally-sound farming practices should account for the specificities of each crop and region. After an exhaustive analysis of the existing literature and the consultation to different relevant stakeholders (farmers, public administration, scientifics, NGOs), we concluded that the best crop diversification for almond orchards under Mediterranean semiarid climate is the an intercropping in the alleys, which may be rotated. Such crops can be aromatic plants such as thyme, lavender or rosemary for industrial products or food (perennial), or oats, barely, alfalfa and/or vetch for feed (annual). In addition, the most adequate farming practices for the specific environmental problems of the area are the addition of organic matter (manure, compost, etc.), minimum tillage against slope direction and the maintenance of the natural vegetation on the edges of the plots. These preliminary results will be considered as definitive once they have been tested in field experiments to validate their effectiveness.

La agricultura europea está viendo cómo se limita su expansión debido a los problemas ambientales asociados a los niveles intensivos de explotación a los que se ha llegado. Los agricultores demandan más estrategias y formas de cultivar que les permitan respetar los recursos y el medio ambiente, base de su economía. Es un hecho que la diversificación de los cultivos es una de esas estrategias, pero es necesaria más investigación para adaptarla a los diferentes cultivos y condiciones de cada país. Por ello, es necesario tener en cuenta las problemáticas de cada zona a la hora de recomendar el tipo de diversificación más adecuada y las prácticas culturales a realizar para minimizarlas. Tras un análisis bibliográfico y la consulta a diferentes agentes implicados (agricultores, administración pública, investigadores y ONG), se ha llegado a la conclusión de que la mejor diversificación para el cultivo del almendro en clima mediterráneo semiárido es la instalación de cultivos asociados intercalados entre las calles de los almendros, que pueden ir en rotación. Dichos cultivos pueden ser aromáticas como el tomillo, la lavanda o el romero como producto industrial o para alimentación (cultivo permanente) o avena, cebada, alfalfa y/o veza para ganado o caza (cultivos anuales). Asimismo, las prácticas culturales más adecuadas para los problemas ambientales específicos de la zona serían el aporte de materia orgánica mediante estercolado o compostaje, el laboreo reducido siguiendo curvas de nivel y el mantenimiento de la vegetación natural en las lindes de las parcelas. Estos resultados se mostrarán como definitivos después de ser ensayados en campo y contrastada su efectividad.

Monocropping and farm intensification triggers many environmental and economic threats. We developed a meta-analysis to obtain a better understanding of the implication of crop diversification and management practices such as tillage and fertilization in Mediterranean woody orchards on soil pH, soil nutrients, soil organic carbon and crop yield. With regard to crop yield, the best combination was a monocrop with mineral fertilization and disk harrowing tillage. However, this management system should not be recommended since it has detrimental effects on SOC and nutrient levels, and increases pH over basicity. One of the best agricultural management in olive orchards is the combination of permanent seeded cover crops, organic fertilization and minimum tillage, particularly when the clay content in soil is high. However, aridity could negatively affect this cropping system. One of the best agricultural management in almond orchards developed under semiarid conditions is the application of mixed fertilization (organic and mineral) with permanent cover crops or sown cover crops with minimum tillage. When the almond orchard is developed under other climatic conditions the best agricultural management could be the use of mixed fertilization and annual cover crops without tillage. With regard to citrus orchards, current management practices have led to an increase in soil pH which could decrease soil nutrient availability. Since citrus are strongly water demanding compared with the rest of orchard types, the most sustainable alternative would be the cultivation of this crops under subhumid class and 20-30 % of clay content. The best agricultural management for citrus would be intercropping with permanent cover crops without tillage.

El monocultivo y la intensificación agraria está conduciendo a múltiples amenazas ambientales y económicas. Por ello hemos desarrollado un meta-análisis con varios estudios científicos para entender mejor la implicación de la diversificación de cultivos y prácticas de manejo como el arado o la fertilización en cultivos leñosos mediterráneos en el pH del suelo, el nivel de nutrientes, el carbono orgánico y la producción. Con respecto a la producción, la mejor combinación es un monocultivo con fertilización mineral y arado de discos. Sin embargo, este sistema no debería recomendarse al reducir significativamente los niveles de material orgánica y nutrientes del suelo, con incrementos en el pH por encima de valores básicos. Una de las mejores prácticas en el olivar con mantenimiento de buenos niveles de producción es la combinación de cubiertas verdes permanentes, fertilización orgánica y arado mínimo, particularmente cuando el contenido de arcilla es alto. Para el almendro, una de las mejores prácticas bajo clima semiárido es la aplicación de fertilización mixta (mineral y orgánica) con cubiertas verdes permanentes o cubiertas verdes sembradas con mínimo laboreo. Cuando el almendro se encuentra en otras condiciones climáticas de mayor humedad la mejor estrategia sería el uso de fertilización mixta con cubiertas verdes anuales sin laboreo. En el caso de los cítricos, las actuales prácticas de manejo están conduciendo a elevados niveles de pH que reducen la disponibilidad de nutrientes. Dado que el cultivo de cítricos tiene elevada demanda de agua, la mejor alternativa es su cultivo bajo clase climática sub-húmeda y un 20-30% de arcilla en el suelo. La mejor práctica de manejo sería la incorporación de cubiertas verdes permanentes sin laboreo.

A substantial proportion of EU agriculture has been modernized and intensified to face the ever-growing food demand. However, diversification strategies are often negatively perceived by farmers for a possible decrease in yields and economic benefits. We assessed yield increases from the scientific literature available for European countries, by comparing a set of diversified cropping systems under low-input management practices with the intensive systems. In relation to tillage management, no tillage is effective in increasing crop yields by about 12% compared to conventional deep tillage, particularly in fine textured soils and in arid and semi-arid climates. Considering diversified cropping systems as alternative to monoculture, long crop rotations (at least 3 years) and intercropping increase yield by about 11%. About fertilization, organic fertilization with manure addition is highly sustainable in terms of yield increase (about 40%). In addition, mixed fertilization management (mineral+organic inputs) is particularly effective with the introduction of a cover crop (56%), and if mineral fertilizers are combined with the addition of crops residues (24%) or with both manure and crop residues (about 40%). The highest increases are obtained when crop residues are incorporated into the soil or mulched with conservative tillage managements (about 40-70%), in arid, semi-arid and sub-humid climates (25-80%), and with long crop rotations and intercropping (40-60%). These results derived from several European experiences confirm the efficiency and sustainability of implementing crop diversification at large scale in European farms.

Gran parte dell'agricoltura UE è stata modernizzata e intensificata per rispondere alla crescente domanda di cibo. Tuttavia, le strategie di diversificazione sono spesso percepite negativamente dagli agricoltori per i possibili cali di rese e benefici economici. È stata analizzata la letteratura scientifica disponibile per i paesi europei, valutando gli incrementi di resa dei sistemi colturali diversificati e con pratiche di gestione a basso input rispetto ai sistemi intensivi. Per le lavorazioni del terreno, la non lavorazione ha aumentato le rese di circa il 12% rispetto all'aratura convenzionale, soprattutto nei terreni a tessitura fine e nei climi aridi e semi-aridi. Considerando i sistemi colturali diversificati come alternativa alla monosuccessione, le rotazioni colturali lunghe (almeno 3 anni) e le consociazioni aumentano la resa di circa l'11%. Per la fertilizzazione, la concimazione organica con aggiunta di letame è altamente sostenibile con aumenti di resa di circa il 40%. La gestione mista della fertilizzazione (minerale+input organici) è particolarmente efficace con le colture di copertura (56%) e se i concimi minerali sono applicati con residui colturali (24%) o con letame e residui colturali (circa il 40%). Gli incrementi maggiori di resa si osservano nei climi aridi, semi-aridi e sub-umidi (25-80%), quando i residui colturali sono incorporati nel terreno o pacciamati sulla superficie con lavorazioni conservative (circa 40-70%) e in presenza di rotazioni colturali lunghe e consociazioni (40-60%). I risultati delle diverse esperienze europee confermano l'efficienza e la sostenibilità su larga scala della diversificazione colturale nelle aziende agricole europee.

Soil organic carbon content (SOC) is positively correlated with a fertile soil status, and plays a beneficial role in determining the physical, chemical and biological qualities of a soil and the ecosystem functioning. We assessed SOC increases from the scientific literature available for European countries, by comparing a set of diversified cropping systems under low-input management practices with the intensive systems. Crop diversification with long rotations (at least 3 years) and the introduction of legume crops increased SOC content by 13%, with higher increases in semiarid conditions (11%) compared to humid and subhumid climates (3%). Organic fertilization showed the highest average SOC increases (25%), particularly with manure (39%) and the combination mineral+manure+residues (19%). Fertilization effect was higher in the Mediterranean region (25%) compared to the Atlantic and Boreal areas (10%), and in loamy textures (23%). In relation to tillage management, SOC increased in higher proportion with no-tillage (7%), organic fertilization (27%), manure addition (43%) and crop rotation (5%). In addition, SOC improvements with sustainable tillage were higher in arid and semiarid climates (8%) compared to humid and subhumid conditions (4%).These results derived from several European experiences confirm the efficiency and sustainability of crop and management diversification practices in European farms.

Il contenuto di carbonio organico nel suolo (SOC) è correlato positivamente con la fertilità del terreno, determinando effetti benefici sulle qualità fisiche, chimiche e biologiche e le funzioni ecosistemiche. Dall'esame della letteratura scientifica disponibile per i paesi europei, sono stati valutati gli aumenti di SOC confrontando i sistemi di coltivazione diversificati con pratiche di gestione a basso input con quelli intensivi. La diversificazione delle colture con rotazioni lunghe (almeno 3 anni) e l'introduzione di colture di leguminose hanno aumentato il contenuto di SOC del 13%, con aumenti più elevati in condizioni semiaride (11%) rispetto ai climi umidi e subumidi (3%). La fertilizzazione organica ha mostrato i maggiori aumenti medi di SOC (25%), in particolare con la letamazione (39%) e la combinazione concime minerale + letame + residui (19%). L'effetto della fertilizzazione è maggiore nell'area mediterranea (25%) rispetto alle zone atlantiche e boreali (10%) e nei suoli con tessitura argillosa (23%).Per quanto riguarda le lavorazioni, il SOC è aumentato in proporzione maggiore con la non lavorazione (7%), la concimazione organica (27%), l'aggiunta di letame (43%) e la rotazione delle colture (5%). Inoltre, i miglioramenti di SOC con le lavorazioni sostenibili sono maggiori nei climi aridi e semiaridi (8%) rispetto a quelli umidi e subumidi (4%). Questi risultati derivati da diverse esperienze europee confermano l'efficienza e la sostenibilità delle pratiche di diversificazione colturale e gestionale nelle aziende agricole europee.

Conservation tillage (CT) refers to tillage systems minimizing mechanical operations, reducing the volume of soil disturbed, and preserving more surface residues in comparison with conventional tillage. There are many types of CT, including no-tillage (also named sod-seeding), reduced tillage and minimum tillage. CT can provide sensible economic advantages for farmers, associated with reductions in work time, machinery wear and tear, and energy use. Benefits for agricultural systems include soil protection from erosion, reduced soil compaction, enhanced storage of soil organic matter, and a general improved soil quality. In addition, tillage reduction commonly increases water holding capacity and infiltration rates, particularly relevant for Mediterranean European countries where CT can perform best since water availability in the soil is limited by climatic constraints. We assessed soil organic carbon (SOC) increases from the scientific literature available for European countries, by comparing a set of CT field experiments with the conventional tillage systems. Results showed an average SOC increase by 14% in the top 15 cm compared to conventional tillage, and no tillage was more effective (20%) in increasing SOC compared to minimum/reduced tillage (12%). In detail, no tillage increased SOC by about 60 % in the top 5 cm, minimum/reduced tillage by 30%. As average, SOC decreased by about 10% in the deeper layers, confirming that CT effect is limited to the topsoil. These results derived from several European experiences confirm the efficiency and sustainability of implementing conservation tillage in European farms.

La lavorazione conservativa (LC) indica i sistemi di lavorazione che, rispetto alla lavorazione convenzionale, minimizzano le operazioni meccaniche, riducono il volume di suolo disturbato e mantengono maggiori residui colturali in superficie. Le più diffuse LC sono la non lavorazione (o semina su sodo, NL), la lavorazione ridotta (LR) e minima (LM). LC può fornire sensibili vantaggi economici per gli agricoltori riducendo i tempi di lavoro e l'usura dei macchinari e aumentando il risparmio energetico. Tra i vantaggi per i sistemi agricoli ricordiamo la protezione del suolo dall'erosione, la riduzione della compattazione, l'incremento della sostanza organica e la migliore qualità del suolo. La riduzione della lavorazione può aumentare la capacità di ritenzione idrica dei suoli e i tassi d'infiltrazione, aspetto particolarmente rilevante nei paesi Europei mediterranei; dati i vincoli climatici che possono limitare la disponibilità idrica del suolo, la LC può fornire risultati migliori. È stata analizzata la letteratura scientifica disponibile per i paesi europei, confrontando prove di LC con sistemi convenzionali di lavorazione. Nello specifico, si registrano aumenti di carbonio organico del suolo (CO) del 14% nei primi 15 cm rispetto alla lavorazione convenzionale. La NL è più efficace (20%) rispetto alla LM e LR (12%). L'aumento di CO con la NL è di circa il 60% nei primi 5 cm, mentre con la ML e RL è del 30%. In media, negli strati profondi il CO diminuisce del 10%, confermando che l'effetto della LC si limita allo strato superficiale. I risultati delle esperienze europee confermano l'efficienza e la sostenibilità dell'adozione della LC nelle aziende agricole Europee.

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100 Practice Abstracts

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100 Practice Abstracts

Cross-case study comparative economic analysis of diversified cropping systems in Europe

Análisis comparativo de los resultados económicos de la diversificación de cultivos en Europa

Effect of alley cropping on the nitrous oxide (N2O) emission of soils

A talaj N2O kibocsátása köztes vetéskor a sorközökben

Effect of alley cropping on the carbon dioxide (CO2) emission of soils

A talaj CO2 kibocsátása köztes vetéskor a sorközökben

Olive oil quality in monocrop and diversification plots

Calidad del aceite de oliva en las parcelas de monocultivo y diversificaciones

Sustainability as a guarantee of profitability of the cultivation system.An integrated approach between supply chains.

La sostenibilità come garanzie di redditività del sistema colturale. Un approccio integrato tra filiere.

Crop diversification and ecosystem services: what is the value? Economic evaluations: is not only the market that matters.

Diversificazione colturale e servizi ecosistemici: quale valore? Valutazioni economiche, non esiste solo il mercato

Rotation with leguminous and organic amendements mitigate carbon loss in Finland.

Rotazioni con leguminose e l'aggiunta di composti organici mitiga la perdita di carbonio in Finlandia.

Diversified and integrated management practices can help reducing GHG emission significantly.

Las prácticas diversificadas de gestión integrada pueden ayudar a reducir significativamente las emisiones de GEI.

No tillage and use of green manure proved to be successful farming practices for semiarid Mediterranean regions.

Nessuna lavorazione del terreno e l'uso di sovescio si sono rivelati pratiche agricole di successo per le regioni semiaride del Mediterraneo.

Agrometeorological measurements and evaporation estimation in a Villány vineyard for the purposes of diversification

Agrometeorológiai mérések és párolgásbecslés egy villányi szőlőterületen diverzifikáció előkészítése céljából

Impact of climate change on crop cultivation in school teaching based on the analysis of integrated climate time series (1870-2100) used for crop…

A változó éghajlat növénytermesztésre gyakorolt hatásainak iskolai oktatása a terménydiverzifikációt szolgáló integrált éghajlati idősorok (1870-2100)…

Protection against wind erosion on the Kiskunsági sand dune with crop diversification

Védekezés a szélerózió ellen a Kiskunsági-homokháton terménydiverzifikációval

Barriers to crop diversification practices and key messagges for policy makers

Barriere alle pratiche di diversificazione colturale e relative indicazioni di policy

Microbial community changed under organic cropping systems and improved soil quality and yield.

La comunidad microbiana cambió bajo un sistema de cultivo orgánico y mejoró la calidad del suelo y la producción

Long-term compost application changes the bacterial relationship and its functionality

La aplicación de compost a largo plazo cambia las relaciones bacterianas y su funcionalidad

First year melon:cowpea intercropping can enhance soil properties and crop yield

El primer año de asociación de cultivos de melón caupí puede mejorar las propiedades del suelo y la producción

How to measure the efficiency of a rainfed almond agroecosystem through diversification with winter thyme?

¿Cómo medir la eficiencia de un agroecosistema de almendros en secano mediante la diversificación con tomillo de invierno?

Production of winter thyme essential oil diversifying dryland almond trees

Producción de aceite esencial de tomillo de invierno diversificando almendros de secano

Minimum and adapted tillage practices respecting ridge morphology reduce erosion rates

Labranza mínima y adaptada a la morfología de los caballones reduce las tasas de erosión de suelo

Intercropping winter thyme between rainfed almond trees contributes to climate change mitigation by favoring the stabilization of carbon in the soil.

Intercalar tomillo de invierno entre almendros de secano contribuye a la mitigación del cambio climático al favorecer la estabilización del carbono en el suelo.

Intercropping annual crop rotation with legumes in irrigated citrus is recommended to promote soil carbon and nitrogen stabilization.

La rotación anual de cultivos con leguminosas en cítricos en regadío es recomendable para favorecer la estabilización del carbono y nitrógeno en el suelo.

Mandarin crop yield and quality after the implementation of alley crop rotations in a Mediterranean region

Rendimiento y calidad del cultivo de mandarina después de la implementación de rotaciones de cultivos en los callejones en una región mediterránea

Effects of the implementation of alley crop rotations on the physical properties of a mandarin crop with regulated irrigation deficit

Efectos de la implementación de rotaciones de cultivos en callejones sobre las propiedades físicas de un cultivo de mandarina con riego deficitario

Intercropping systems between melon and cowpea can enhance overall crop production

Los sistemas de cultivos intercalados entre melón y caupí pueden mejorar la producción general de cultivos

Intercropping systems between melon and cowpea can improve soil fertility

Los sistemas de cultivo intercalado entre melón y caupí pueden mejorar la fertilidad del suelo

Best practices for the implementation of crop diversification practices: public-private parternships, cooperation and brand identity

Buone pratiche per l'implementazione di pratiche di diversificazione colturale: partenariati pubblico-privato, cooperazione e brand identity

Crop diversification to reduce wind erosion hazard in a semiarid blown-sand area of Hungary

Szélerózió mérséklése magyarországi szemiarid homokterületen terménydiverzifikációval

Reducing interrill erosion rates by crop diversification at alleys between irrigated woody crops

Reducción de las tasas de erosión laminar mediante la diversificación de cultivos en calles entre cultivos leñosos de regadío

Reducing interrill erosion rates by intercropping perennial plants between rainfed almond crops

Reducción de las tasas de erosión laminar mediante el cultivo intercalado de plantas perennes entre almendros de secano

Long-term adoption of reduced tillage and green manure increases the abundance of beneficial bacteria in a Mediterranean rainfed almond orchard

La adopción a largo plazo de la labranza reducida y el abono verde aumenta la abundancia de bacterias beneficiosas en un huerto de almendros de secano

Long-term adoption of reduced tillage and green manure improves soil physicochemical properties in a Mediterranean rainfed almond orchard

La adopción a largo plazo de labranza reducida y abonos verdes mejora las propiedades fisicoquímicas del suelo en un huerto de almendros de secano mediterráneo

Reductions in greenhouse gas emissions with the establishment of perennial alley cropping in a Mediterranean almond orchard

Reducción de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero con el establecimiento de cultivos en callejones de especies perennes en un huerto de almendros

Perennial alley cropping contributes to decrease soil CO2 and increase soil carbon sequestration in a Mediterranean almond orchard

El cultivo en callejones de especies perennes contribuye a disminuir el CO2 del suelo y aumentar el secuestro de carbono en un huerto de almendros

Intercropping Practices in Mediterranean Mandarin Orchards from an Economic Perspective

Prácticas de cultivo intercalado en huertos mediterráneos de mandarina desde una perspectiva económica