The PAPILLONS consortium conducted a field experiment to study the effects of micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) on crop production and quality, aiming to uncover whether MNPs impact plant performance. Researchers investigated how these particles affect plants at different stages of their development and how well plants grow and function when they are exposed to MNPs through the soil. More specifically, the study examines the ways in which recycled MNPs affect barley growth, yield, and physiological responses in real farming conditions across three European countries: Spain, Germany, and Finland. 

While barley yield remained relatively stable across treatments, clear physiological and biochemical changes were observed due to MNP exposure, especially at higher concentrations and over longer periods. These changes include reduced chlorophyll levels, increased oxidative stress, and activation of plant defence systems. Effects varied significantly between countries, showing that local climate and soil conditions influence how crops respond to plastic pollution. Overall, the study confirms that MNPs can subtly affect crop health even under real-world conditions, highlighting the need for regulation and long-term monitoring of plastic use in agriculture.

The degradation of plastics used in agriculture, such as mulching films, can produce microplastics that can enter and then contaminate the soil. Therefore, PAPILLONS researchers studied the impact of microplastics stemming both from conventional and biodegradable mulching films on soil properties and microbial function (i.e. the essential roles that microorganisms - mainly bacteria and fungi - play in maintaining soil health and supporting plant growth). This study aims to understand how even small amounts of microplastics affect soil health. Researchers focused on both conventional (polyethylene) and biodegradable (PBAT-based) mulching films, looking at their impact on soil structure, chemistry, and especially on soil microorganisms, which play a key role in maintaining fertility and supporting crop growth.

The resutls shows that MNPs—composed of both conventional and biodegradable polymers—can affect important soil functions, especially microbial activity and fungal communities, even at low, environmentallyrelevant concentrations. While no dramatic changes in soil properties were seen, the reduction in microbial activity over time is cause for concern, as it may undermine long-term soil fertility and resilience. These impacts vary depending on the region and climate. The findings suggest that biodegradable plastics, while potentially less persistent, are not free from environmental impacts, and their use should be carefully managed and further studied under real agricultural conditions.

Microplastics (MPs) are increasingly recognized as a serious pollutant in terrestrial ecosystems. Emerging research shows that MPs are accumulating in soils at potentially even higher concentrations than in oceans, threatening vital processes linked to soil fertility. A recent global meta-analysis synthesizing data from 147 peer-reviewed studies (over 1100 observations) sheds light on how MPs affect soil enzymes crucial for nitrogen (N) acquisition. 
This comprehensive meta-analysis applied rigorous statistical techniques to evaluate how MPs impact the activities of key soil enzymes linked to the breakdown of proteins, chitin, and urea—substances found in natural soil organic matter and some fertilizers. These enzymes are essential to making nitrogen available to plants and supporting crop growth and quality. The survey included data from a wide range of soil types, environmental conditions, and MP types (from both biodegradable and conventional plastics, often derived from agricultural materials).
Soil MPs alter fundamental processes critical to plant nutrition and ecosystem health. Regulatory frameworks should be adapted to address MP contamination in soils, with a focus on waste management, plastic use in agriculture, and thresholds for safe exposure. These insights can inform agricultural practices that reduce MPs accumulation in farmland while ensuring soil conditions that can buffer against the negative effects of these pollutants.

PAPILLONS engaged with farmers across the EU to explore the benefits and challenges associated with the use of agricultural plastics (AP). The selection of case studies was designed to reflect the diversity of European farming— capturing variations in climate, practices, and the ways APs are used, managed, and regulated. Three countries – Finland, Ireland and Italy - wereselected for in-depth analysis through a series of workshops and interviews. Interactions with farmers associations and other relevant stakeholders began in the summer of 2024. The workshops and interviews were conducted between October 2024 and May 2025. 
Key findings:
Dissatisfaction with biodegradable alternatives, leading to reduced trust in labelling claims and reluctance to try new similar products.
Increased costs of alternatives, but also damage of farmers' reputation due to unsightly appearance of their lands. 
Farmers are generally open to using more sustainable options—provided they perform reliably under local conditions.
Insufficient recycling capacity.
Lack of compatibility with existing machinery used.
Researchers confirmed that biodegradable materials are still under development and cannot yet match the decades of refinement seen in conventional plastics. Farmers are hesitant to switch due to perceived cost and performance risks. As noted by one of the farmers we interviewed, the main challenge lies in farmers’ reluctance to explore unfamiliar products and practices.

The pan-European ATLAS describing the use of agricultural plastics use and associated waste generation is an investigative, geolocating tool for the assessment of agricultural plastic waste (APW) across the European countries. It identifies where APW is generated and the quantity produced by agricultural activities, both overall and by specific plastic types. This detailed assessment supports targeted management and action by farmers, stakeholders, and waste managers aiming to implement sustainable solutions such as recycling plans and waste collection centres. The ATLAS provides a clear picture of APW
of different PAs in European regions, highlighting areas where plastic waste is mostly concentrated. Europe's APW generation is regionally specific and unevenly distributed, with Southern European countries producing far more APW than Central or Northern Europe. This happens for various reasons, including climate, APs use, cultivation techniques, and UAA.
Geographic distinctions are a crucial factor in determining APW generation by region. Any type of APW management system would have to be geographically specific in order to be effective. The ATLAS of APW, available on the PAPILLONS website, offers a detailed view of hhow the APW of each PA is distributed across different agricultural regions. This tool serves as a valuable resource for informing policies and practices aimed at reducing environmental impact.

Papillons organized a series of dedicated experiments in the field and the laboratory to investigate the degradation and fragmentation mechanisms leading to the generation of micro- and nano-plastics (MNPs) in agricultural soil. The aim of the study was to look into the behaviour of various conventional and biodegradable agricultural plastics (APs) under controlled laboratory, artificial ageing, and real-field conditions, to fill critical knowledge gaps regarding AP degradation, microplastics MNPs generation, while promoting sustainable agricultural practices and end-of-life (EoL) management for agricultural plastic waste (APW). The findings from this study highlight the urgent need for improved plastic management strategies in agriculture to prevent long-term soil pollution. 
Key takeaways include:
Certified biodegradable plastics can help reduce long-term soil pollution, but their biodegradability depends on local climate and soil. 
Proper EoL management practices, stricter rules, improved recycling systems, and cooperation between farmers, policymakers, and industry are needed to manage agricultural plastic waste sustainably.

The PAPILLONS project focuses on the risk of contamination from micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) in European agricultural soils. One of its goals is to help society, and in particular policymakers, to prioritize measures to prevent this pollution. In March 2025, the project published a policy brief explaining the main results, highlighting research gaps, and giving advice to European Institutions at a crucial moment for the negotiations around a new directive for the monitoring of EU soils. The scientific results illustrated in the policy brief stress the urgent need for decisive action against plastic pollution to protect soil health, food safety, and human health. In this context, an EU-wide policy instrument is essential to ensure quality control, and to protectthe competitiveness of food producers who invest in clean and sustainable agriculture.
Hence, PAPILLONS policy recommendations entail:
The Soil Monitoring Law shall include MPs as critical soil contaminants. Monitoring should take place every five years to provide a useful level of control.
National and European authorities shall enact actions to monitor evolution of MP levels in soils, identify source pathways and reduce emissions. They should also invest in further research on the topic.
The use of biodegradable plastic in agriculture should be revised and informed by a complete risk assessment and risk management scheme (including strict, traceable certification and quality control/assurance practices).
The EU should create a “low plastic content” certification for biofertilizers. Restriction or ban of practices known to cause substantial addition of plastic to soil should be considered.

Pollution with microplastics (MPs) is one of the most pressing environmental issues we face today. These MPs, which can be harmful to both nature and human health, are released into our environment in large quantities— between 10 and 40 million tonnes each year. A significant portion of this pollution ends up on land, especially in farmland soils. This can happen through common farming practices, such as the use of mulch films, treated sewage, compost, or other practices to improve soil productivity and crop yield. MPs can also reach soils indirectly through litter, road runoff, flooding, or even from the air (atmospheric deposition). Despite the scale of the challenge, how much each of these sources contributes to the pollution remains unclear. Taking this aspect into account, the PAPILLONS consortium published a study whose aim is to provide for the first time a comprehensive, comparable and reliable database of MPs and associated additive pollution in European agricultural soils. This study is the first to create a detailed and reliable database of MP pollution in European farm soils. By collecting soil samples across several countries and using advanced testing methods, the researchers were able to compare MP contamination in different agricultural  fields. The study found that MP levels in the soil vary greatly, with higher concentrations in Southern Europe than in the North. The total amount of MPs in the top 10 cm of agricultural soil across the EU could be more than the total plastic waste produced annually in Europe. The findings highlight the growing environmental issue of plastic pollution in farm soils and suggest that addressing it will require a broad, integrated approach, not just individual solutions.

PAPILLONS consortium published a study in the journal Environmental Pollution titled Biodegradable microplastics induce profound changes in lettuce (Lactuca sativa) [...], which investigated the effects of relevant concentrations of PBAT (polybutylene adipate terephthalate) based biodegradable microplastics (MPs) on plant growth and defensemechanisms. The experiment was conducted in a mesocosm system: a controlled system that mimics natural conditions. Lettuce was used as a plant species to study the influence of biodegradable MPs on plant performance. Biodegradable plastic materials have been introduced in agricultural practices and are often positioned as a more sustainable alternative to conventional plastics. MPs from conventional plastics potentially threaten plants, soil organisms and agricultural ecosystem functioning. However, the effects of biodegradable plastic substitutes on soil ecosystems are not well studied.Therefore, this study aims at an in-depth analysis of the potential adverse effects of biodegradable MPs on plants. Results show that MPs derived from biodegradable plastics can alter plant growth and health, raising concerns about their use in agriculture. Therefore, further research is needed, both under field conditions and with diverse crops to better understand long-term implications of these materials on agricultural soils.

In 2024 a PAPILLONS study was published in the journal Cambridge Prism: Plastics. The study, entitled “Addressing the environmental sustainability of plastics used in agriculture: a multi-actor perspective”, aimed at analyzing stakeholder responses and perceptions towards the use of Agricultural Plastic (AP), shedding light on each group’s perceived knowledge gaps and proposed actions. The study collected inputs through surveys and in person meetings from four main stakeholder groups across the world: 
1. Farmers’ Perspective
Farmers prioritize productivity, efficiency, and food security, which often make APs an attractive option, as they preserve food quality, facilitate higher yields, and reduce pesticide use. However, there is a growing awareness of the negative environmental impact, particularly on plastic waste accumulation and soil contamination. 
2. Industry & Industry Associations’ Perspective
They emphasize the economic and environmental trade-offs of reducing AP use, as it could contribute to sustainability by reducing water use, pesticide dependency, and crop losses. Most support better end-of-life (EoL) management solutions, rather than banning APs.
3. Environmental NGO Perspective 
NGOs view APs as a major source of pollution. They advocate for reducing APs through policy reforms, economic incentives, and education, arguing that the long-term consequences of plastic pollution outweigh the short-term benefits.
4. Environmental Scientist
They highlight the lack of data on the long-term impact of AP pollution on soils and ecosystems, as research has focused more on marine pollution than on agriculture thus far. 
 

"CLIMECS (CLImatic Manipulation of ECosystem Samples) is a mesocosm test system, originally developed to study the effects of climate change on soil ecosystems under simulated natural conditions. Within the PAPILLONS project, the CLIMECS system is used to study the effects of microplastics under more realistic, but still well-controlled conditions, as an intermediate step between single-species toxicity tests and field-plot experiments.

CLIMECS combines different species of soil organisms, representing different trophic levels, in a natural soil, to simulate the conditions in soil ecosystems. And by its unique capacity of controlling abiotic conditions like temperature and humidity, it allows studying both the direct and indirect effects of microplastics on different biotic and abiotic parameters. CLIMECS also provides a unique tool to study the fate of microplastics in soil, alone or in interaction with soil organisms. The results of these studies, will be published as scientific journals."
 

Micro & nanoplastics (MNPs) are ubiquitous in the environment, including in agricultural soils. To date, levels of MNPs have been estimate to be between 0.00014% and 6.75% w/w. Plastic pollution enters soils via a range of different pathways, including agricultural plastics, biosolids and atmospheric deposition. This raises concerns about their potential impact on soil structure and the organisms that depend on it, including plants. MNPs can be absorbed by plants and transported from their roots to their leaves. Understanding these effects is crucial given the fundamental role of plants in the food chain and for food security. A systemic literature review was conducted to synthesize our current knowledge on the effects of MNPs on terrestrial plants. A total of 78 articles were identified, and we extracted data on seed germination, plant growth and biochemical responses. The aims of this in-depth analysis were to provide a summary of our current understanding of the interactions between MNPs and terrestrial plants, and to identify research gaps to guide future studies on this topic.
 

Agricultural plastics, a potential threat due the risks of soils pollution by microplastics. Defining the problem

Agricultural plastics include both conventional fossil-based and biodegradable alternatives used in crop and ivestock production. Biodegradable plastics are certified to international standards, ensuring they break down into harmless components. Bioplastics, made from biological raw materials, offer a sustainable alternative with a lower carbon footprint. Despite these benefits, concerns remain about MNPs residuals in soil.Today’s agricultural plastics cover a wide range of products used in crop and livestock production, offering solutions tailored to the specific needs of each application (resistance to UV and agrochemicals, microclimate regulation, reduce inputs, help with soil disinfection or irrigation). Among these products, greenhouse and tunnel films play a central role in protecting crops while improving yields and product quality. Mulch films and fumigation films are also commonly used in agriculture. Bio-based/biodegradable agricultural plastics have been developed for a variety of agricultural uses, responding to the growing demand for environmentally friendly solutions. However, confusion about biodegradable mulching films persists:  these materials, treated with pro-oxidant additives, undergo accelerated fragmentation under the effect of UV and heat, but their biodegradability in soil remains unproven.
 

The increasing impact of micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) on soils is a major environmental concern. These pollutants, which originate from a variety of sources such as waste and agriculture, are causing widespread contamination at increasing concentrations. However, the precise effects of this contamination on soil ecosystems remain largely unknown, raising significant difficulties in assessing ecological risks. Research into the ecotoxicological effects of MNPs in soils requires test materials that accurately reflect environmental conditions. Currently, studies mainly use pristine spherical MNP, but these do not always represent the diversity of MNPs present in soils, which can lead to biased conclusions. To obtain more accurate assessments, it is crucial to prioritize the most important particle types in terms of exposure and hazard, taking into account the dominant sources of MNP pollution in soils. International collaboration is needed to harmonize methods for the production and characterization of MNP test materials, and to develop protocols for the production and certification of reference materials. In addition, the transparent communication of information on MNPs used in ecotoxicological studies and the conservation of these materials for future testing are recommended to ensure reproducibility of results. Further efforts are needed to establish more robust characterization protocols, including the detection and identification of additives present in MNPs, to better understand their interactions with organisms and ecosystems.
 

The pollution of agricultural soils by Micro and Nano plastics is a major concern. PAPILLONS proposes a digital ATLAS to map the distribution and assess the impact of plastic waste, generated by agricultural applications, to makes it possible to quantify and locate this waste so that it can be managed effectively. This paves the way for more sustainable use of agriculturalplastics  limiting potential negative impacts of plastic wastes. The main objective of the ATLAS of APW is to estimate the quantities of APW due to diverse agricultural applications (such as greenhouse covering films, mulching films, low tunnels films, nets, irrigation pipes, agrochemical containers, bags for fertilizers, and support equipment for vineyards) and to map their geographical distribution in several European countries. By providing quantitative and spatial data, the ATLAS aims to inform policy makers, waste managers and farmers for informed decision making and targeted interventions.
 

Researching micro and nanoplastics (MNP) is often a challenge on its own. Due to their small size and varied characteristics, they can be difficult to quantify analytically. A common solid global framework for analysis and data reporting is currently lacking today. The PAPILLONS project has managed to create batches of custom-designed reference materials of MNPs produced from common polymer types for agricultural plastics (APs) used in European agriculture, which now can be used for reliable testing, assessment, and other research purposes. Moreover, this involves using not only virgin but representative, recycled agricultural plastics materials too. With this work, the PAPILLONS project manages to supply MNP reference materials not only to the different parts of its own research activities but can share them with the outside world too, where demand for such products is high. Besides the know-how on the production of such reference materials, what is equally important is that now the research project is characterizing these reference materials as well. Previously, only a few important attributes were recognized, but now an agenda and standard are set for a more detailed and harmonized system, which in return will facilitate better interpreting the results and understanding why certain effects are taking place. The designed code is easy to use and implement, while at the same time being sufficiently precise. Such documentation reinforces scientific clarity by providing a comparison of results.
 

"Plastic in agriculture is widely used nowadays.
It has many separate applications, from mulching films, to wrapping silage, bags and agrochemical containers or contributing to irrigation or greenhouse systems. By using plastics, it has been possible to extend the growing season, reduce the need for herbicides, or increase agricultural production, which all contribute to food security. Plastics have been a relatively affordable, and practical solution for various farming practices, resulting in agricultural plastic products being key assets both in crop and livestock production. Besides their benefits for agriculture, however, plastics, and their residues, could have a potential negative impact on the health and sustainability of soils as well as on quality and value of the landscape. Since in some production system plastics get deployed directly in the environment, it sometimes comes in contact with soil especially following mishandling. During ageing of agricultural plastics and improper management of agricultural plastic waste, littering and fragmentation can occur with the accumulation of micro and
nanoplastics in the soil. These are small fragments (sometimes in microscopic or nanoscopic size) of plastic that can affect soil health and fertility. Furthermore, chemical additives present in plastic products could be potentially released over time as well, which then enter the soil, and through there it gets transferred to other parts of the environment. Once these plastics are in the soil, often in the form of micro- or nano plastics, it is nearly impossible to remove and retrieve them."