Sustainable Soil and Subsoil health promotion by implementing agroecological land use and management to enhance ecosystem services delivery for society

With approximately 171,000 km of hedgerows, Normandy is the third most bocage-rich region in France. The average density of Norman hedgerows (estimated at 57 m ha-1) is well above the national average (28 m ha-1). The region is characterized by a heterogeneous distribution of hedgerow lengths across departments, a landscape legacy reflecting the evolution of agricultural practices. CARBON SEQUESTRATION Thanks to photosynthesis, the woody perennial hedgerow captures atmospheric carbon, storing it in its aboveground and root biomass. In Normandy, the median sequestration potential in harvested aboveground biomass is estimated at 9.6 tCO2-eq km-1 year-1. It is particularly efficient in the region: hedgerow trees grow on average 1.6 times faster than deciduous forests, benefiting rich and well-drained agricultural soils, as well as better access to light resources. Organic carbon stocks are 14% higher in the immediate vicinity of hedgerows (up to 2 m) compared with arable fields, with an average additional storage of 0.69 t C 100 m-1. Coppiced hedgerows, which account for three quarters of the regional hedgerow network, show the highest productivity (7.4 m³ km-1 year-1) and thus contribute to a dynamic carbon flux. Intra-plot agroforestry allows for additional storage of +207 kg C ha-1 year-1, offering a transferable solution to improve the resilience of agricultural systems

CLIMATE RESILIENCE In the face of a projected temperature increase of +3.6°C by 2100 in Normandy under the Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) 8.5 scenario, bocage management must anticipate these changes to ensure its long-term viability. These projections translate into 42 additional hot days and 23 fewer frost days. The repeated occurrence of drought and heatwave episodes over several years, more than isolated extreme events, may lead to the gradual decline of certain species, such as beech. Species selection therefore becomes strategic: historically present but sometimes forgotten species

Soils with low organic matter content and long-term structural degradation are widespread in Tunisian agricultural systems, resulting in poor water infiltration, weak biological activity and limited exploitation of the soil profile by crops. Locally produced biochar was introduced as a practical amendment to restore hydrological and biological functions across both topsoil and sub-soil. Biochar is incorporated into the cultivated layer at moderate application rates compatible with farm practices. When used as an amendment, biochar improves nutrient retention and fertilizer efficiency, reducing losses while supporting gradual soil regeneration. Rather than acting as a short-term input, biochar modifies soil physical properties by increasing porosity, improving aggregate stability and enhancing water infiltration and storage throughout the soil profile. These changes facilitate the downward movement of water and roots, promoting a better functional connection between surface and deeper soil layers. At the same time, the porous structure of biochar provides stable habitats for soil organisms, supporting biological activity and persistence beyond the cultivated horizon. microbial Over time, this practice contributes to improved root development, more stable soil moisture conditions and a progressive increase in soil functional quality. In degraded farming systems, these improvements translate into better crop establishment, increased resilience to climatic variability and more stable yields. By relying on locally available biomass resources, the practice supports circularity and offers a scalable solution for the long-term restoration of non-healthy agricultural soils in Mediterranean environments.

This practice is part of the Living Lab initiative in Tunisia and was co-developed with local stakeholders in non healthy agricultural soils. It can be adapted to different Mediterranean farming systems facing soil degradation.

SUS-SOIL is a project funded by the European Soil Mission that includes 22 partners from 13 countries and has a duration of 4 years. SUS-SOIL will develop 15 subsurface living labs (LLs) to inventory, analyse, and compare different land uses with agroecological soil management and their impact on the dynamics of the deep layers of arable soil (below 30 cm), with the aim of better combining agroecological management practices in rural and urban areas. The results of SUS-SOIL will serve as a starting point for land managers and public authorities to understand the risks associated with non-arable soil layers and to support the agroecological transformation of the European Union. SUS-SOIL will develop: (i) a subsurface monitoring database interoperable with LUCAS and ESDAC, (ii) long-term analysis of subsurface management in LLs taking into account different soil types, the provision of rural and urban ecosystem services, and modelling, (iii) a set of agricultural ideotypes that combine best agroecological management practices as an alternative to conventional systems, (iv) a decision-support tool for the subsurface and (v) a subsurface policy strategy framework to promote best agroecological management practices. It will also provide an algorithm for soil carbon storage rate in collaboration with the PEFC (Programme for the Endorsement of forest certification schemes).

Agriculture and Food Sciences, University of Sarajevo, a digital soil–water management system was introduced as a climate adaptation measure. The system improved water-use efficiency, optimized fertilization, reduced labor demand, and enhanced fruit quality compared with conventional irrigation. Climate change in Bosnia and Herzegovina is reflected in rising temperatures, frequent droughts, and irregular precipitation, placing pressure on perennial fruit production. Orchards are particularly vulnerable due to high water demand and dependence on stable soil–water relations. These risks intensify soils with restrictive subsoil layers identified at the experimental site. The soil is of alluvial origin, with a 0–25 cm clay loam horizon and a compacted subsoil layer at 25–40 cm, with bulk density up to 1.6 g cm⁻³. Compaction caused by intensive cultivation and heavy machinery restricts root penetration, reduces infiltration and aeration, and limits effective rooting depth. As a result, drought stress develops rapidly, while intense rainfall increases the risk of water accumulation above the compacted layer, reducing nutrient uptake and yield stability. A digital irrigation and fertigation system was implemented through the EU4AGRI project “Smart Systems in Agriculture – Responding to 21st Century Challenges.” Soil moisture sensors installed within the root zone monitor volumetric water content and transmit data in real time to a central unit that automatically initiates irrigation when predefined thresholds are reached.

Water and nutrients are delivered precisely through drip irrigation, and the system stops once optimal conditions are restored. Although it does not eliminate soil compaction, digital soil–water management enables precise regulation within the limited rooting zone, reducing drought and waterlogging risks and supporting climate-resilient orchard production.

Soil biological function encompasses the essential metabolic processes carried out by the diverse soil organisms (mainly bacteria and fungi, but also worms and insects), which enable the functioning of the terrestrial ecosystem. This includes the decomposition of organic matter, chemical detoxification, the recycling of nutrients (C, N, P), and the formation of soil structure, thus allowing for soil aeration and water filtration. All these functions are essential for the maintenance of terrestrial life, plant development, carbon storage, and water regulation, ultimately, they together contribute to the ecosystem resilience. Ecosystem resilience may be defined as the capacity of ecosystems to withstand transient or permanent structural changes, absorb disturbances, and maintain its structure and functioning. This ability is particularly important for coping with major disturbances such as fires, prolonged soil compaction, and tillage. The biodiversity of soil organisms partially determines the resilience capacity of ecosystems. There are several factors that can threaten soil resilience, and therefore, the maintenance of ecosystem services. These include global warming, habitat loss and degradation, pollution, overexploitation, biodiversity losses, etc… which compromises ecosystems integrity, and, from a productive point of view, leads to reductions in crop yield and quality. Considering the especial role of soil organism biodiversity in the ecosystem resilience, it is important to focus land management on preserving this biodiversity. The loss of keystone species or those with unique functional roles can have significant ecological impacts, resulting in reduction in agricultural productivity.

There is a need for strengthening capacities and coordinating activities in order to promote integrated agro ecosystem approaches for the conservation, sustainable use and enhancement of soil biological functions.

Agroecological systems deliver provisioning, regulation and maintenance and cultural ecosystem services that sustain productivity, resilience, and long-term adaptation. Agroecological management practices to enhance ecosystem services can include (i) Diversification strategies: intercropping, agroforestry strips, crop rotations and cover crops to enhance biomass production, strengthen soil fertility, improve pest regulation and reduce production risks, (ii) Habitat management: hedgerows, flower strips, refuge patches and non-cropped areas to support pollination and natural pest control through increased landscape complexity, (iii) Soil health practices: reduced or no tillage, organic amendments, green manures, perennial species and permanent soil cover to promote erosion control, nutrient cycling and carbon sequestration, (iv) Integrated pest management (IPM): monitoring, biological and cultural control, with targeted chemical use only above environmental thresholds to reinforce ecological regulation processes, (v) Water and erosion control: riparian vegetation buffers, contour farming, mulching and infiltration-enhancing practices to improve water quality and soil retention and (vi) Seed and genetic resource stewardship: on-farm conservation and participatory breeding to sustain genetic resources and strengthen adaptive capacity.

Drained peat grasslands emit high nitrous oxide (N2O), and soil disturbance during renewal makes them a major climate challenge. Summer ploughing as an intervention Grassland renewal through ploughing is essential for maintaining forage yield and quality, but the timing strongly influences soil processes and N₂O emissions. The traditional boreal practice, autumn ploughing (AP) followed by spring reseeding leaves soil bare over winter, a period with no plant nutrient uptake. In contrast, summer ploughing (SP) with immediate reseeding maintains continuous plant cover during the growing season, improving nutrient uptake and reducing microbial N₂O production. AP can also degrade soil structure, reduce nutrient availability, increase soil moisture, and remove vegetation cover, all of which enhance N₂O emissions. Therefore, performing tillage in summer is a more effective management option to lower N₂O emissions without altering land use. Main findings include (i) AP caused much higher and longer N₂O emissions, while SP produced only brief peaks that dropped quickly after grass reestablishment, (ii) SP significantly reduced total N₂O emissions over three years than AP, (iii) N₂O emissions per unit of yield were much lower under SP, making it the more climate efficient option, (iv) Grass yields increased under both methods, showing SP’s lower emissions didn’t reduce productivity; faster regrowth after SP also cut nutrient and GHG losses.

Summer ploughing supports both productivity and climate goals by keeping soil covered with actively growing vegetation whenever conditions allow.

Rising atmospheric CO₂ and climate change require carbon sequestration alongside emission reductions. Soil sequestration is enhanced by basalt amendment, which accelerates mineral weathering, stabilizes carbon in soils, and reduces water usage. Enhanced rock weathering is commonly known in the field of carbon storage, being considered a source of nutrients and a tool for C-sequestration. At the Sekem Wahat farm, researchers tested various basalt and compost amendments across 12 plots. The mixtures included basalt concentrations of 27wt% and 5wt% relative to compost, applied at a rate of 48 tons of compost per hectare and season. Results showed that wheat productivity increased by more than 15% following basalt application compared to conventional management. Soil analyses conducted over two years showed a substantial rise in nutrient availability, with potassium reaching 500 mg kg-1 and phosphorus reaching 70 mg kg-1, indicating significant soil fertility enrichment. In terms of climate benefits, preliminary assessments suggest a carbon dioxide removal potential ranging from –1.4 to –10 Mg CO₂e per hectare per year at a basalt application rate of 35 Mg ha -1 yea -1 r. Additionally, operational performance improved, with a 15% reduction in production costs and a 15% increase in soil organic matter content.

Conversion of agricultural land to forests can change soil properties. Information on these changes is important mainly for greenhouse gases inventory in the LULUCF sector, as an increase in soil carbon stocks is one of the most pronounced and relevant consequences. In the 1950s and 1960s, the main reason for land-use change in Slovakia was the afforestation of eroded soils on slopes, gullies, and other degraded areas. Since the 1990s, the most extensive process has been natural forest expansion on abandoned agricultural soils. Several methodological approaches have been used in research projects to study possible changes in soil following land use change from arable land or grassland to forest land. The most reliable results were obtained from soil carbon measurements along transects at the “forest edge”. This type of forest expansion is usually neglected. Due to grassland mowing practices, the grassland directly adjacent to forest stands is often not mown, allowing tree seedlings to survive and grow. In this way, the forest edge can shift 10-20 m over several decades. In the research site, soil organic carbon (SOC) density in topsoil was significantly higher in forests (both old forests and young forest stands in the transition zone) than in adjacent grasslands. The mean annual rate of SOC density increase under wood was in this case more than 0.5 Mg ha-1. If there are no clear and reliable frameworks for payment for this soil ecosystem service (carbon sequestration), the landowner may choose various management options: converting naturally forested areas into managed forests, transforming them into silvopastoral systems, or even removing the woody perennials and change back to agricultural land. However, decisions depend not only on environmental effects but ultimately on legislation and the practical objectives of farmers.

Beyond other advantages of mixed grazing (MG) understood as the combination of different livestock species, a key aspect concerns its effects on soil. MG has been shown to increase the spatial extent of plant root systems, thereby reducing nutrient leaching. At the same time, it appears to decrease soil bulk density compared to single-species grazing, making it a promising management option in situations where enhanced water infiltration and reduced rapid surface runoff are desired. MG contributes to the maintenance and enhancement of soil food web structure and function, as reflected by an increased functional metabolic footprint of nematodes and higher energy fluxes. Furthermore, studies have demonstrated that MG increases bacterial and fungal richness while simultaneously reducing the stochasticity in ecological interactions compared with single species grazing. In contrast, grazing by monospecific herds of cattle or sheep tends to exert negative effects on the structure and functioning of the soil food web. MG promotes nitrogen retention, enhances phosphorus mobilization, and improves plant–microbe interactions, thereby supporting nutrient cycling stability, particularly in alpine grasslands. In soils under MG, compared with soils grazed exclusively by sheep or cattle, extractable calcium concentrations are higher, whereas potassium concentrations are lower. In addition, MG is associated with higher zinc concentrations in the A soil horizon and higher magnesium concentrations in the B soil horizon.

In Europe, mixed herds of goats (Capra aegagrus) and sheep (Ovis aries) are common management practice. In contrast, MG systems involving cattle (Bos taurus) with goats or sheep are extremely rare, unlike in the United States, where this practice is increasingly being adopted.

Intercropping is an ancestral technique, which consists of growing different types of grains and legumes (or other mixed crops) at the same time. This practice is beneficial in mountainous areas, as issues such a: depletion of soil nutrients, increased soil erosion, reduced soil biodiversity, condensation and reduced water infiltration, reduced system resilience prevail. ESTABLISHMENT AND BENEFITS Various combinations of crops can be used in the establishment according to the needs and availability of the soil, from the following: vegetables (cabbage, parsley, carrots, beans, potatoes, corn, tomatoes, peppers, zucchini), trees (walnuts, apples, hazelnuts, quinces, cherries, chestnuts), native plants (oregano). Care must be taken fortrees not intercepting the sun light for the vegetables and do not compete with them for nutrients. Intercropping with cereals, legumes and other compatible crops significantly enhances plant growth, reproductive characteristics, yield and fruit quality, while increasing soil health. The higher biomass production of intercopping and therefore the soil organic matter inputs incease increases soil health. It provides continuous improvements in key parameters such as soil organic carbon and microbial biomass. In addition, diversified intercropping enhances water use efficiency, moderates the soil microclimate and protects crops from climate variability.

Overall, intercropping presents an ecologically sustainable pathway for the revitalization of fruit-based cropping systems, also known as permanent crops. By improving soil functionality, optimizing resource use and enhancing crop resilience, intercropping offers a transformative approach to achieving increased productivity while ensuring environmental stewardship in changing climate scenarios.

Organic farming in mountainous environments constitutes a strategic approach to soil management, aiming to protect biodiversity and enhance the sustainability of crops. In Evrytania, these practices are adapted to the region’s specific conditions, such as its mountainous terrain, dense forests and meadows. Benefits and Challenges of Organic Farming for Mountain Soils In Evrytania, the main organic farming practices include crop rotation, the use of organic fertilizers such as compost, the avoidance of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, and the use of cover crops and intercropping. These practices provide significant benefits for soil health, including improved soil structure, increased water and nutrient retention, enhanced biodiversity and nutrient recycling. Furthermore, the limited use of mechanical interventions reduces erosion and strengthens the stability of mountain soil systems. However, the addition of organic farming in mountainous soils also presents challenges. Steep slopes, low natural soil fertility, the need for increased manual labor, and extreme weather conditions can lead to nutrient loss, reduced productivity, and higher production costs.

The implementation of organic practices in Evrytania contributes to the protection of soil health, the maintenance of biodiversity, and the conservation of water resources. At the same time, due to the lack of large arable areas, the limited growing season, extreme climatic conditions, and steep slopes, careful management and increased effort are required to ensure the long-term sustainability of the crops.

Actions to keep mountain farms viable while safeguarding soils, water and biodiversity. IMPLEMENTATION CONSTRAINTS AND CO-BENEFITS Mountain agriculture and livestock farming keep upland landscapes productive and rich in biodiversity, but they are simultaneously under pressure from land abandonment, rising costs, labor shortages, extreme weather events, and increasing erosion. In Greece (e.g., Karpenisi, Samothraki, Crete, Andros), the sustainability of mountain ecosystems depends on healthy pastures, access to water, and the maintenance of terraces and landscape infrastructure. Soil and water protection at the farm level, together with rational/controlled grazing, reduces degradation and helps maintain the yields of mountain agriculture. Key soil protection interventions include controlled grazing, protection of riparian zones, restoration of stone-built terraces and dry-stone walls, ground cover and cover crops in mosaic farmland plots and small scale water collection/storage. Agroforestry and nature-based solutions (hedgerows, buffer strips, restoration of wetlands/erosion hotspots) strengthen resilience and ecosystem services. Digital tools (GIS/remote sensing) support targeted interventions  and monitoring, while local collaborations and short value chains can reward good practices and help keep young people in mountain areas.

Summary: By combining controlled grazing, restoration of terraces/dry-stone walls, protection of riparian zones, and targeted Nature-based Solutions (NbS) with GIS-based monitoring, we reduce erosion and risks while sustaining production and farm income in mountain systems. Example: On Andros Island, the LIFE TERRACESCAPE project revived and restored terraces/dry-stone walls as “green infrastructure,” delivering benefits such as reduced soil erosion and flood risk, and improved infiltration and groundwater recharge.

Agriculture intensification has relied on high-input practices (e.g. deep tillage, large amount of synthetic fertilisers and pesticides, and irrational irrigation) and large scale monoculture to maximise yields and support food security. So far, these systems reduced soil health, biodiversity, and carbon sequestration, and increased soil erosion and compaction. Crop diversification (rotations, intercrops, etc.) is a strategy to sustain yield and reduce environmental impact. Rotation diversifies crops in time but usually maintains sole crops per growing season. Intercropping grows two or more species simultaneously by exploiting beneficial interspecies interactions. Beneficial interactions include complementarity (different use of resources) and mutual facilitation, which enhance yields, farmer profit, and sustainability, and increase soil health. Intercropping improves nutrient uptake and availability, especially when using legumes, increase below-ground biodiversity, promoting biological activity, soil infiltration, water retention, and aeration, soil organic matter formation, and pests and pathogens suppression. Thus, intercrops reduce pesticide and fertiliser dependence. Intercrop performance should be agronomically, economically and environmentally assessed. Comparing intercrops with the sole crops counterparts helps assessing their performance. To maximize the benefits, species selection, seeding density and spatial arrangement, and plant nutrition and protection issues should be modulated to improve complementarity or facilitation, and maintain the balance between/among species to preserve the system’s biological advantages Dedicated monitoring tools for soil health specifically designed for intercrops are strongly needed.

Hydro-geological instability (HGI) threatens soil health and human safety. Agriculture management and HGI are tightly interconnected, especially under the effect of climate change. The increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events expose many areas to strong hydro-geological risks, with special emphasis to the mediterranean environments. Hydro-geological risk occurs through flooding, landslides (gravity-driven mass movements of soil), gully and rills erosion (concentrated runoff of soil) and diffused/sheet erosion, and water stagnation, exposing natural and cultivated ecosystems, and human settlements to dramatic management problems. Soil erosion can vary depending on soil characteristics and weather, and can account for 10-50 t sediment lost ha-1 year-1 or even more. Because it affects large areas, human-induced erosion can be more marked than erosion driven by weather events at the landscape scale. Soil loss is commonly estimated with the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) based models, which considers rainfall erosivity (R), soil erodibility (K), slope length and steepness (LS), and cover-management practices (CP). Management mainly affects CP, which can dramatically increase or reduce the total erosion in agriculture. In Agriculture, tillage and harvest operations strongly trigger soil degradation and the sheet erosion, escalating the other forms of erosion. Tillage destroys soil structure, damages vegetation cover, triggers the formation of gullies or rills. In particular, shifting from tillage to no tillage reduce erosion by 70-95%. Reduction of forest cover and unregulated urban expansion often blocked water infiltration in soil and increased its speed, which increased the erosion potential.

Conservation Agriculture (CA) is a farming system that combines efficiency and low cost to prevent soil degradation, and promote soil protection through reduced or no tillage, soil cover, and crop rotations. Compared to ploughed soil, CA improves soil organic carbon accumulation in the topsoil, soil health and biodiversity, bearing capacity, widening the window for field operations reduces erosion, labour per unit area, and production costs, and increases yield stability1, and usually also farmer profit. CA increases water availability for crops through a reduce water evaporation, which improve yield at increasing aridity. In arid condition, fuel consumption for tillage accounts for 40-60% of the total cost. Thus, CA dramatically reduce the cultivation cost compared to the conventional, and may increase profit even when yields are slightly lower than conventional. Avoiding tillage, the main driver of soil degradation, is CA cornerstone. Using a direct drill is necessary, but not sufficient. Efficient CA systems require a systemic redesigning of the management: (i) suitable machinery for sod, residue-covered soils, (ii) effective and timely weed, pathogen and pest control, (iii) adjust fertilisation strategies, (iv) adapted crop genotypes, augmented seed rate, and slightly earlier sowing date and (v) diversified rotations.