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project - Research and innovation
LINKING SOIL BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONS AND SERVICES IN DIFFERENT LAND USES: FROM THE IDENTIFICATION OF DRIVERS, PRESSURES AND CLIMATE CHANGE RESILIENCE TO THEIR ECONOMIC VALUATION
Objectives
The main objective of BIOservicESisto understand the interconnection between soil organisms(virus, bacteria, archaea, fungi, protists, nematodes, microarthropods, earthworms, isopods, millipedes, insects and spiders) and the delivery of multiple soil ecosystem functions and services at different scales (field vs landscape), identifying the pressures and drivers resulting from different land uses and climate change, and performing an economic valuation of the contribution
of soil organisms to ecosystem services. BIOservicES will also deepen in the relationship between soil organisms and soil structure, and how this interaction is affected by land use and management intensity, to contribute to theSoil Mission objective 6 “Improve soil structure to enhance habitat quality for soil biota and crops”. BIOservisES will thus deliver new knowledge, new indicators based on soil organisms and the ecosystem functions and services in which they are involved and digital decision-support tools and models to help design climate resilient management practices and monitoring/ conservation/restoration programmes adapted to a range of environments (land uses and biogeographic regions) across Europe, to maintain and foster the multiple soil ecosystem functions and services in which soil organisms are involved. It will also give relevance to soil health and soil ecosystem functions and services delivered by soil organisms in the update of EU and National legislations. For this, BIOservicES is using experimental sites across 8 land uses and 5 biogeographic regions from Europe, as central hubs for co-creation and co-design (multi-actor approach, responsible research and innovation and open science).
Activities
To achieve BIOservicES goals, duration is 60 months, structured in three stages and seven WPs:
The first stage was the creation of stakeholder communities, harmonization of methods, soil sampling and analysis and mapping review of policy. The second stage is the biostatistical analysis and upscaling, economic valuation of soil ecosystem services, soil sampling and analysis in climate change experiment, optimisation of infrared spectroscopy, certification approaches and economic and financial innovation schemes. And the third stage is the creation of new Lighthouses, maps of keystone organisms linked to ecosystem functions and services, integrated economic valuation of ecosystem services and policy recommendations.
Project details
- Main funding source
- Horizon Europe (EU Research and Innovation Programme)
- Type of Horizon project
- Multi-actor project
- Project acronym
- BIOservicES
- CORDIS Fact sheet
- Project contribution to CAP specific objectives
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- SO4. Agriculture and climate mitigation
- SO6. Biodiversity and farmed landscapes
- Preserving landscapes and biodiversity
- Project contribution to EU Strategies
- Protecting and/or restoring of biodiversity and ecosystem services within agrarian and forest systems
EUR 7 398 540.00
Total budget
Total contributions including EU funding.
EUR 7 398 540.00
EU contribution
Any type of EU funding.
79 Practice Abstracts
Objectives
Plant Protection Products are widely used in agriculture and urban areas for weed management and to protect crops and plants against harmful organisms, such as pests and diseases. Moreover, pesticides can be detected from prior activities, such as agricultural uses, and from current land uses. In this context, we collected 150 soil samples from urban, agricultural, mining, industrial, and semi-natural areas with different degrees of management intensity in the semiarid Mediterranean region of NE Spain.
Results
Pesticide residues were widely detected across urban, agricultural, and semi-natural land uses, with significant differences among management intensities. Surprisingly, high concentrations were found in medium- and low-intensity of management in agricultural and semi-natural areas, mainly hexachlorobenzene (a fungicide) and DDT-related residues (insecticides). The elevated concentrations in less-managed areas such as semi-natural environments are likely linked to historical applications, including the former use of Plant Protection Products in forested semi-natural areas for tree production or in lands previously dedicated to agriculture. Furthermore, low-management agricultural areas are commonly associated with no-tillage practices involving herbicide application before sowing, which may also contribute to the observed patterns.
Recommendations
Pesticide residues in Mediterranean soils were influenced not only by current management practices but also by historical land uses and legacy contamination. The detection of high concentrations in low-intensity and semi-natural areas highlights the long-term persistence of pesticides and the need for broader soil monitoring strategies across different land uses.
Objectives
Plant Protection Products are widely used in agriculture and urban areas for weed management and to protect crops and plants against harmful organisms, such as pests and diseases. Moreover, pesticides can be detected from prior activities, such as agricultural uses, and from current land uses. In this context, we collected 150 soil samples from urban, agricultural, mining, industrial, and semi-natural areas with different degrees of management intensity in the semiarid Mediterranean region of NE Spain.
Results
Pesticide residues were widely detected across urban, agricultural, and semi-natural land uses, with significant differences among management intensities. Surprisingly, high concentrations were found in medium- and low-intensity of management in agricultural and semi-natural areas, mainly hexachlorobenzene (a fungicide) and DDT-related residues (insecticides). The elevated concentrations in less-managed areas such as semi-natural environments are likely linked to historical applications, including the former use of Plant Protection Products in forested semi-natural areas for tree production or in lands previously dedicated to agriculture. Furthermore, low-management agricultural areas are commonly associated with no-tillage practices involving herbicide application before sowing, which may also contribute to the observed patterns.
Recommendations
Pesticide residues in Mediterranean soils were influenced not only by current management practices but also by historical land uses and legacy contamination. The detection of high concentrations in low-intensity and semi-natural areas highlights the long-term persistence of pesticides and the need for broader soil monitoring strategies across different land uses.
Objectives
Plant Protection products (PPPs) residues in soils are an environmental concern that requires special attention due to their potential impacts on ecosystems and public health, especially in agricultural and urban areas. In the EU Continental pedoclimatic region, we assessed the occurrence of 72 PPPs across different land uses (urban, agricultural, mining, semi-natural, and forest) at three management intensities.
Results
Pesticide occurrence was mainly detected in urban, agricultural, and semi-natural land uses, whereas no pesticide residues were found in mining and forest land uses. Fungicides and DDT-related residues were the most common pesticide residues, with differences in intensity, especially under agricultural conditions and land uses where PPPs have been applied. Even though PPPs have not been applied in urban and especially in semi-natural areas, high levels and diversity of pesticide residues were found, highlighting that pesticides can appear from previous uses.
Recommendations
Given the widespread occurrence of PPP residues across multiple land uses, particularly in urban and semi-natural areas where pesticides have not been recently applied, long-term monitoring programs should be established to track residue persistence and accumulation over time.
Objectives
Plant Protection products (PPPs) residues in soils are an environmental concern that requires special attention due to their potential impacts on ecosystems and public health, especially in agricultural and urban areas. In the EU Continental pedoclimatic region, we assessed the occurrence of 72 PPPs across different land uses (urban, agricultural, mining, semi-natural, and forest) at three management intensities.
Results
Pesticide occurrence was mainly detected in urban, agricultural, and semi-natural land uses, whereas no pesticide residues were found in mining and forest land uses. Fungicides and DDT-related residues were the most common pesticide residues, with differences in intensity, especially under agricultural conditions and land uses where PPPs have been applied. Even though PPPs have not been applied in urban and especially in semi-natural areas, high levels and diversity of pesticide residues were found, highlighting that pesticides can appear from previous uses.
Recommendations
Given the widespread occurrence of PPP residues across multiple land uses, particularly in urban and semi-natural areas where pesticides have not been recently applied, long-term monitoring programs should be established to track residue persistence and accumulation over time.
Objectives
Boreal ecosystems encompass a mosaic of land uses. While agricultural soils are commonly monitored for pesticide residues, other land use types in boreal regions remain largely understudied, leaving significant knowledge gaps regarding the extent and distribution of soil contamination.We assessed the occurrence of 72 pesticide compounds in 150 soil samples from Latvia, covering different land uses (forest, agricultural, mining, semi-natural, and wetlands) and management intensities.
Results
In contrast to the expected pattern, pesticides were found in all land uses, except for agricultural uses. For land uses where pesticides appeared, no significant differences between high and low management intensity were detected. Interestingly, soil samples from the forest land use had the highest concentrations of the analyzed compounds, especially insecticide-related pesticides such as methyl parathion and DDT residues. In the case of agricultural uses, no pesticides were detected.The presence of insecticides and largely banned pesticides, such as DDT residues, can be explained by several reasons. First, these soils are Histosols (organic soils or peatlands), consisting primarily of organic materials, which can adsorb high quantity of pesticides. Forest stands were situated near agricultural fields formerly managed by wealthy, progressive collective farms. During 1980–1985, the aerial spraying of chemicals by small planes (“kukuruznik”) was considered an innovative and progressive practice. Mineral fertilizers and other chemicals were applied in this way.
Recommendations
Overall, pesticide residues in Boreal soils reflected mainly historical contamination processes rather than current agricultural management. The persistence of banned compounds, particularly in organic-rich forest soils, highlights the long-term legacy of past pesticide applications and the importance of monitoring all land use types in Boreal ecosystems.
Objectives
Boreal ecosystems encompass a mosaic of land uses. While agricultural soils are commonly monitored for pesticide residues, other land use types in boreal regions remain largely understudied, leaving significant knowledge gaps regarding the extent and distribution of soil contamination.We assessed the occurrence of 72 pesticide compounds in 150 soil samples from Latvia, covering different land uses (forest, agricultural, mining, semi-natural, and wetlands) and management intensities.
Results
In contrast to the expected pattern, pesticides were found in all land uses, except for agricultural uses. For land uses where pesticides appeared, no significant differences between high and low management intensity were detected. Interestingly, soil samples from the forest land use had the highest concentrations of the analyzed compounds, especially insecticide-related pesticides such as methyl parathion and DDT residues. In the case of agricultural uses, no pesticides were detected.The presence of insecticides and largely banned pesticides, such as DDT residues, can be explained by several reasons. First, these soils are Histosols (organic soils or peatlands), consisting primarily of organic materials, which can adsorb high quantity of pesticides. Forest stands were situated near agricultural fields formerly managed by wealthy, progressive collective farms. During 1980–1985, the aerial spraying of chemicals by small planes (“kukuruznik”) was considered an innovative and progressive practice. Mineral fertilizers and other chemicals were applied in this way.
Recommendations
Overall, pesticide residues in Boreal soils reflected mainly historical contamination processes rather than current agricultural management. The persistence of banned compounds, particularly in organic-rich forest soils, highlights the long-term legacy of past pesticide applications and the importance of monitoring all land use types in Boreal ecosystems.
Objectives
Plant Protection Products (PPPs) are widely used in agriculture and urban areas for weed management and to protect crops and plants against harmful organisms, such as pests and diseases. Moreover, pesticides can be detected from prior activities, such as agricultural uses, and from current land uses. In the Atlantic region (NW Spain), we collected 170 soil samples from different land uses: urban, agricultural, mining, semi-natural, and wetland, with different intensities (high, medium, and low).
Results
Pesticides were mainly distributed in agricultural and urban land uses, with small amounts in medium- to low-intensity managed semi-natural and wetland areas (previously agricultural areas). No significant differences between intensities were found. The pesticides found were mainly fungicides and some DDT-related compounds, including in urban areas that had previously been located near agricultural areas and were later urbanized through expansion. Moreover, in agricultural areas, the main PPPs were fungicides and herbicides, as these areas are highly susceptible to fungal diseases (e.g., mildew), which are characterized by moderate temperatures and high relative humidity. In addition to urban areas, traces of pesticides were found in semi-natural areas due to the conversion of agricultural land to natural forest over the last 40 years.
Recommendations
Pesticide occurrence was strongly linked to current and historical agricultural activities, with residues persisting even after land use conversion. These findings highlight the long-term legacy of PPP use and the need for sustainable management practices to reduce pesticide accumulation in soils across different ecosystems.
Objectives
Plant Protection Products (PPPs) are widely used in agriculture and urban areas for weed management and to protect crops and plants against harmful organisms, such as pests and diseases. Moreover, pesticides can be detected from prior activities, such as agricultural uses, and from current land uses. In the Atlantic region (NW Spain), we collected 170 soil samples from different land uses: urban, agricultural, mining, semi-natural, and wetland, with different intensities (high, medium, and low).
Results
Pesticides were mainly distributed in agricultural and urban land uses, with small amounts in medium- to low-intensity managed semi-natural and wetland areas (previously agricultural areas). No significant differences between intensities were found. The pesticides found were mainly fungicides and some DDT-related compounds, including in urban areas that had previously been located near agricultural areas and were later urbanized through expansion. Moreover, in agricultural areas, the main PPPs were fungicides and herbicides, as these areas are highly susceptible to fungal diseases (e.g., mildew), which are characterized by moderate temperatures and high relative humidity. In addition to urban areas, traces of pesticides were found in semi-natural areas due to the conversion of agricultural land to natural forest over the last 40 years.
Recommendations
Pesticide occurrence was strongly linked to current and historical agricultural activities, with residues persisting even after land use conversion. These findings highlight the long-term legacy of PPP use and the need for sustainable management practices to reduce pesticide accumulation in soils across different ecosystems.
Objectives
Plant protection products (PPPs) are applied not only in agriculture but also in forests and semi-natural areas for pest and vegetation management. However, their accumulation in soils across different land use types and management intensities remains poorly understood. In the Alpine region of Switzerland, we assessed the occurrence of 72 pesticide residues or their metabolites in 150 soil samples from five land uses (agricultural, forest, industrial, Semi-Natural, and wetlands), with varying management intensities (from high to low intensity).
Results
Pesticide residues were detected in agricultural soils, with fungicide-related compounds as the most common, one of them (Hexachlorobenzene), banned in Switzerland since 2004. No significant differences were observed across agricultural management intensities (e.g., varying degrees of ploughing and tillage). In non-agricultural areas — including forests, wetlands, and semi-natural habitats — residues were largely absent or only sporadically detected in isolated samples.
Recommendations
These findings confirm that agricultural areas appear as the main driver of soil pesticide contamination in Alpine regions, regardless of management intensity. Land managers and policymakers should consider routine monitoring of PPPs in agricultural soils a baseline requirement, even for largely banned pesticide compounds, as they can be persistent due to the properties of Alpine soils, such as moderate organic matter content, which can increase pesticide retention.
Objectives
Plant protection products (PPPs) are applied not only in agriculture but also in forests and semi-natural areas for pest and vegetation management. However, their accumulation in soils across different land use types and management intensities remains poorly understood. In the Alpine region of Switzerland, we assessed the occurrence of 72 pesticide residues or their metabolites in 150 soil samples from five land uses (agricultural, forest, industrial, Semi-Natural, and wetlands), with varying management intensities (from high to low intensity).
Results
Pesticide residues were detected in agricultural soils, with fungicide-related compounds as the most common, one of them (Hexachlorobenzene), banned in Switzerland since 2004. No significant differences were observed across agricultural management intensities (e.g., varying degrees of ploughing and tillage). In non-agricultural areas — including forests, wetlands, and semi-natural habitats — residues were largely absent or only sporadically detected in isolated samples.
Recommendations
These findings confirm that agricultural areas appear as the main driver of soil pesticide contamination in Alpine regions, regardless of management intensity. Land managers and policymakers should consider routine monitoring of PPPs in agricultural soils a baseline requirement, even for largely banned pesticide compounds, as they can be persistent due to the properties of Alpine soils, such as moderate organic matter content, which can increase pesticide retention.
Objectives
Pesticide residues in soils are an environmental concern that requires special attention due to their potential impacts on ecosystems and public health risk, especially in agricultural and urban areas. To this end, we assessed the occurrence and distribution of 72 pesticide residues or their metabolites across 770 soil samples from seven land uses (agricultural, forest, industrial, mining, Semi-natural, urban, and wetland) across five European regions (Alpine, Atlantic, Boreal, Continental, and Mediterranean). We also compared different levels of management intensity, from low to high intensity.
Results
In general, we found that at least one pesticide residue was detected in 318 samples (41% of the analyzed samples), with pesticide amounts ranging from 1 to 6634 ng/g. At least 25 pesticide residues or their metabolites were detected. Pesticide residues have not been detected in industrial land uses, whereas they were frequently found in urban and agricultural land uses (except in the Boreal region, where no pesticides have been detected in agricultural areas). The potential link between high application rates and higher pesticide levels did not always hold; in many cases, pesticide levels were higher in treatments with lower management. Although DDT-related pesticides were banned several decades ago in Europe, they appear in different regions and land uses.
Recommendations
These results highlight the persistence of pesticides in soil over time, with potential risks to the food web, including humans. Moreover, soil monitoring studies should be expanded beyond agricultural uses, and pesticides banned decades ago should also be included in soil monitoring procedures.
Objectives
Pesticide residues in soils are an environmental concern that requires special attention due to their potential impacts on ecosystems and public health risk, especially in agricultural and urban areas. To this end, we assessed the occurrence and distribution of 72 pesticide residues or their metabolites across 770 soil samples from seven land uses (agricultural, forest, industrial, mining, Semi-natural, urban, and wetland) across five European regions (Alpine, Atlantic, Boreal, Continental, and Mediterranean). We also compared different levels of management intensity, from low to high intensity.
Results
In general, we found that at least one pesticide residue was detected in 318 samples (41% of the analyzed samples), with pesticide amounts ranging from 1 to 6634 ng/g. At least 25 pesticide residues or their metabolites were detected. Pesticide residues have not been detected in industrial land uses, whereas they were frequently found in urban and agricultural land uses (except in the Boreal region, where no pesticides have been detected in agricultural areas). The potential link between high application rates and higher pesticide levels did not always hold; in many cases, pesticide levels were higher in treatments with lower management. Although DDT-related pesticides were banned several decades ago in Europe, they appear in different regions and land uses.
Recommendations
These results highlight the persistence of pesticides in soil over time, with potential risks to the food web, including humans. Moreover, soil monitoring studies should be expanded beyond agricultural uses, and pesticides banned decades ago should also be included in soil monitoring procedures.
Objectives
Soils play a key role in regulating water availability and maintaining ecosystem health, especially in regions where land use is highly diverse. This study evaluated how different land uses influence soil functioning in a Mediterranean region, focusing on how soils can store water and maintain their physical condition. The analysed land uses include urban, agricultural, mining, industrial, and seminatural areas, with the aim of comparing more natural systems with highly modified environments.
Results s
Seminatural soils were in better condition than industrial soils in terms of their ability to store water and maintain a healthy structure. This means they can hold water more effectively and support more stable soil conditions. Their better physical condition allows them to sustain more efficient and stable water regulation processes. In contrast, industrial soils showed lower performance in all these aspects. This indicates a reduced ability to store water and a weaker soil structure, which may limit their ecological functioning and increase their vulnerability to degradation under Mediterranean conditions.
Recommendations
Our findings highlight the importance of conserving seminatural areas, as they contribute significantly to maintaining soil quality and supporting natural water regulation. In addition, implementing sustainable management practices in industrial and other heavily modified land uses is recommended to improve soil structure and enhance water retention capacity, helping to reduce long-term soil degradation in Mediterranean landscapes.
Objectives
Soils play a key role in regulating water availability and maintaining ecosystem health, especially in regions where land use is highly diverse. This study evaluated how different land uses influence soil functioning in a Mediterranean region, focusing on how soils can store water and maintain their physical condition. The analysed land uses include urban, agricultural, mining, industrial, and seminatural areas, with the aim of comparing more natural systems with highly modified environments.
Results s
Seminatural soils were in better condition than industrial soils in terms of their ability to store water and maintain a healthy structure. This means they can hold water more effectively and support more stable soil conditions. Their better physical condition allows them to sustain more efficient and stable water regulation processes. In contrast, industrial soils showed lower performance in all these aspects. This indicates a reduced ability to store water and a weaker soil structure, which may limit their ecological functioning and increase their vulnerability to degradation under Mediterranean conditions.
Recommendations
Our findings highlight the importance of conserving seminatural areas, as they contribute significantly to maintaining soil quality and supporting natural water regulation. In addition, implementing sustainable management practices in industrial and other heavily modified land uses is recommended to improve soil structure and enhance water retention capacity, helping to reduce long-term soil degradation in Mediterranean landscapes.
Objectives
This study examines how different land uses influence the soil’s ability to store and regulate water in the Continental region. Different land uses were considered, including forest, agricultural, urban, mining, seminatural, and wetland areas. The aim was to understand how human activities and vegetation cover affect soil quality and its capacity to support key environmental functions such as water regulation.
Results
Soils from seminatural and mining areas tended to retain more water compared to urban soils. This indicates a higher capacity to store water, although these soils may present some limitations in the movement of water and air within the soil, which can influence their long-term functioning. In contrast, forest soils stand out due to their more stable and resilient structure. Compared with urban, agricultural, mining, and seminatural soils, forest soils showed better overall physical quality. This means they are less vulnerable to degradation and can maintain their natural functions more effectively over time. Their improved structure also supports healthier interactions between water, air, and soil.
Recommendations
Forest and seminatural areas are important for keeping natural water regulation working well, while more intensively used soils, especially urban ones, showed signs of degradation. Based on these results, it is important to protect and restore forest and seminatural ecosystems. Also, sustainable land management in urban and agricultural areas is recommended to reduce soil degradation and improve their ability to retain and regulate water.
Objectives
This study examines how different land uses influence the soil’s ability to store and regulate water in the Continental region. Different land uses were considered, including forest, agricultural, urban, mining, seminatural, and wetland areas. The aim was to understand how human activities and vegetation cover affect soil quality and its capacity to support key environmental functions such as water regulation.
Results
Soils from seminatural and mining areas tended to retain more water compared to urban soils. This indicates a higher capacity to store water, although these soils may present some limitations in the movement of water and air within the soil, which can influence their long-term functioning. In contrast, forest soils stand out due to their more stable and resilient structure. Compared with urban, agricultural, mining, and seminatural soils, forest soils showed better overall physical quality. This means they are less vulnerable to degradation and can maintain their natural functions more effectively over time. Their improved structure also supports healthier interactions between water, air, and soil.
Recommendations
Forest and seminatural areas are important for keeping natural water regulation working well, while more intensively used soils, especially urban ones, showed signs of degradation. Based on these results, it is important to protect and restore forest and seminatural ecosystems. Also, sustainable land management in urban and agricultural areas is recommended to reduce soil degradation and improve their ability to retain and regulate water.
Objectives
Soils play an essential role in maintaining ecosystems, influencing their structure and their ability to retain water. The aim of this study was to analyse how different land uses (urban, agricultural, mining, seminatural, and wetland) affect soil physical properties and water availability in the Atlantic region.
Results
Urban soils generally presented a more fragmented structure and lower density compared to seminatural soils, together with higher porosity and a greater proportion of water that is not available for plant use. This indicates important changes in soil functioning due to urban land use. In addition, wetland and seminatural soils showed higher moisture levels compared to agricultural soils, highlighting their greater capacity to maintain water in the soil over time. These differences suggest that land use strongly influences both soil structure and water availability.
Recommendations
Sseminatural and wetland systems maintained better moisture conditions and more stable soil functioning, while more intensively used soils, especially agricultural and urban ones, tended to show signs of alteration in their physical properties. For agricultural and urban soils, it is recommended to apply sustainable soil management practices such as maintaining vegetation cover, reducing soil disturbance, limiting the use of heavy machinery, and increasing soil organic matter through compost or other organic amendments. These measures can help preserve soil structure, reduce degradation, and improve the capacity of soils to retain and regulate water more effectively.
Objectives
Soils play an essential role in maintaining ecosystems, influencing their structure and their ability to retain water. The aim of this study was to analyse how different land uses (urban, agricultural, mining, seminatural, and wetland) affect soil physical properties and water availability in the Atlantic region.
Results
Urban soils generally presented a more fragmented structure and lower density compared to seminatural soils, together with higher porosity and a greater proportion of water that is not available for plant use. This indicates important changes in soil functioning due to urban land use. In addition, wetland and seminatural soils showed higher moisture levels compared to agricultural soils, highlighting their greater capacity to maintain water in the soil over time. These differences suggest that land use strongly influences both soil structure and water availability.
Recommendations
Sseminatural and wetland systems maintained better moisture conditions and more stable soil functioning, while more intensively used soils, especially agricultural and urban ones, tended to show signs of alteration in their physical properties. For agricultural and urban soils, it is recommended to apply sustainable soil management practices such as maintaining vegetation cover, reducing soil disturbance, limiting the use of heavy machinery, and increasing soil organic matter through compost or other organic amendments. These measures can help preserve soil structure, reduce degradation, and improve the capacity of soils to retain and regulate water more effectively.
Objectives
Soils play a key role in water regulation and in reducing flood risk in Alpine regions. The aim of this study was to evaluate how different land uses (forest, agricultural, industrial, seminatural, and wetland) influence soil properties related to water storage, availability, and overall regulation capacity.
Results
There were clear differences between agricultural soils and the other land uses. Forested, industrial, seminatural, and wetland soils generally showed higher water retention capacity, greater moisture content, and more porosity for water storage, as well as lower soil density compared to agricultural soils. These characteristics indicate better conditions for storing and regulating water in these soils.
Recommendations
Less intensive land uses favour better soil functioning in terms of water regulation and storage. This may help reduce flood risk and improve ecosystem stability in alpine environments. For agricultural soils, it is recommended to adopt sustainable management practices such as reducing intensive tillage, using cover crops, adding organic amendments like compost or manure, implementing crop rotation, and limiting soil compaction caused by heavy machinery. These measures can improve soil structure, increase organic matter content, and enhance the soil’s ability to retain and regulate water effectively.
Objectives
Soils play a key role in water regulation and in reducing flood risk in Alpine regions. The aim of this study was to evaluate how different land uses (forest, agricultural, industrial, seminatural, and wetland) influence soil properties related to water storage, availability, and overall regulation capacity.
Results
There were clear differences between agricultural soils and the other land uses. Forested, industrial, seminatural, and wetland soils generally showed higher water retention capacity, greater moisture content, and more porosity for water storage, as well as lower soil density compared to agricultural soils. These characteristics indicate better conditions for storing and regulating water in these soils.
Recommendations
Less intensive land uses favour better soil functioning in terms of water regulation and storage. This may help reduce flood risk and improve ecosystem stability in alpine environments. For agricultural soils, it is recommended to adopt sustainable management practices such as reducing intensive tillage, using cover crops, adding organic amendments like compost or manure, implementing crop rotation, and limiting soil compaction caused by heavy machinery. These measures can improve soil structure, increase organic matter content, and enhance the soil’s ability to retain and regulate water effectively.
Objectives
This study compares soil water regulation and physical functioning across different European biogeographical regions, including Alpine, Atlantic, Continental, and Mediterranean areas. The focus is on key soil functions related to water storage, water availability for plants, and soil structural quality, which are essential for ecosystem stability and productivity under different climatic conditions.
Results
There was a clear contrast between the Alpine and Mediterranean regions. Alpine soils presented better overall conditions, with a higher capacity to retain and store water, greater soil moisture, and a more stable structure. They also tended to have a less compaction and better conditions for water movement and storage. In comparison, Mediterranean soils showed lower performance in these aspects, reflecting more limited water availability and less favourable conditions for maintaining soil structure and moisture. The differences between these regions are particularly pronounced, highlighting the strong influence of climate and environmental conditions on soil functioning.
Recommendations
These findings highlight the importance of preserving Alpine ecosystems, as they play a key role in maintaining efficient soil water regulation and high-quality soil structure. At the same time, sustainable land management in Mediterranean regions is essential to improve soil physical quality, reduce degradation, and enhance their capacity to store and regulate water, especially under increasing climate change pressures.
Objectives
This study compares soil water regulation and physical functioning across different European biogeographical regions, including Alpine, Atlantic, Continental, and Mediterranean areas. The focus is on key soil functions related to water storage, water availability for plants, and soil structural quality, which are essential for ecosystem stability and productivity under different climatic conditions.
Results
There was a clear contrast between the Alpine and Mediterranean regions. Alpine soils presented better overall conditions, with a higher capacity to retain and store water, greater soil moisture, and a more stable structure. They also tended to have a less compaction and better conditions for water movement and storage. In comparison, Mediterranean soils showed lower performance in these aspects, reflecting more limited water availability and less favourable conditions for maintaining soil structure and moisture. The differences between these regions are particularly pronounced, highlighting the strong influence of climate and environmental conditions on soil functioning.
Recommendations
These findings highlight the importance of preserving Alpine ecosystems, as they play a key role in maintaining efficient soil water regulation and high-quality soil structure. At the same time, sustainable land management in Mediterranean regions is essential to improve soil physical quality, reduce degradation, and enhance their capacity to store and regulate water, especially under increasing climate change pressures.
Objectives
Soil chemical properties are strongly influenced by land use, especially in regions with intense human pressure such as the Mediterranean. This study investigates how different land uses (urban, agricultural, mining, industrial, and seminatural areas) affect soil nutrient status and chemical balance, with particular attention to the availability and distribution of essential nutrients in the soil.
Results
Mining soils stand out by presenting higher values of nutrient exchange capacity and higher concentrations of calcium, iron, magnesium, and boron, together with lower pH values, indicating more acidic conditions compared to the other land uses. Agricultural soils showed higher levels of potassium, phosphorus, and manganese compared to seminatural soils, suggesting greater nutrient enrichment linked to land management practices. Seminatural soils, in contrast, presented higher levels of copper but lower concentrations of sulfates compared to mining soils, reflecting a more balanced chemical condition relative to heavily disturbed areas.
Recommendations
There is a strong influence of land use on soil chemical properties in Mediterranean environments. Sustainable management practices should be promoted in agricultural and industrial areas to maintain nutrient balance and reduce soil degradation. In mining-affected soils, restoration measures such as organic amendments and revegetation are recommended to improve soil quality and reduce acidity over time.
Objectives
Soil chemical properties are strongly influenced by land use, especially in regions with intense human pressure such as the Mediterranean. This study investigates how different land uses (urban, agricultural, mining, industrial, and seminatural areas) affect soil nutrient status and chemical balance, with particular attention to the availability and distribution of essential nutrients in the soil.
Results
Mining soils stand out by presenting higher values of nutrient exchange capacity and higher concentrations of calcium, iron, magnesium, and boron, together with lower pH values, indicating more acidic conditions compared to the other land uses. Agricultural soils showed higher levels of potassium, phosphorus, and manganese compared to seminatural soils, suggesting greater nutrient enrichment linked to land management practices. Seminatural soils, in contrast, presented higher levels of copper but lower concentrations of sulfates compared to mining soils, reflecting a more balanced chemical condition relative to heavily disturbed areas.
Recommendations
There is a strong influence of land use on soil chemical properties in Mediterranean environments. Sustainable management practices should be promoted in agricultural and industrial areas to maintain nutrient balance and reduce soil degradation. In mining-affected soils, restoration measures such as organic amendments and revegetation are recommended to improve soil quality and reduce acidity over time.
Objectives
Soils play a key role in ecosystem functioning by regulating nutrient availability, supporting plant growth, and maintaining chemical balance. This study examines how different land uses (forest, agricultural, urban, mining, seminatural, and wetland) influence soil fertility in the Continental region, with a focus on nutrient availability.
Results
There were clear and consistent differences between forest soils and the rest of the land uses. Agricultural, urban, mining, seminatural, and wetland soils generally presented higher values of manganese, pH, and sulfates compared to forest soils, indicating a different chemical soil environment outside forest areas. In addition, agricultural, urban, and seminatural soils showed higher levels of copper and phosphorus compared to forest and mining soils. This suggests that more human-influenced and semi-natural systems tended to accumulate or retain higher amounts of these nutrients. Overall, forest soils displayed a distinct chemical pattern, generally with lower values for most of the studied elements compared to the other land uses in the continental region.
Recommendations
These findings highlight the importance of conserving forest soils due to their unique chemical characteristics. At the same time, sustainable land management practices should be encouraged in agricultural, urban, seminatural, and mining areas to maintain balanced nutrient levels, prevent soil chemical alterations, and ensure long-term soil quality and ecosystem functioning.
Objectives
Soils play a key role in ecosystem functioning by regulating nutrient availability, supporting plant growth, and maintaining chemical balance. This study examines how different land uses (forest, agricultural, urban, mining, seminatural, and wetland) influence soil fertility in the Continental region, with a focus on nutrient availability.
Results
There were clear and consistent differences between forest soils and the rest of the land uses. Agricultural, urban, mining, seminatural, and wetland soils generally presented higher values of manganese, pH, and sulfates compared to forest soils, indicating a different chemical soil environment outside forest areas. In addition, agricultural, urban, and seminatural soils showed higher levels of copper and phosphorus compared to forest and mining soils. This suggests that more human-influenced and semi-natural systems tended to accumulate or retain higher amounts of these nutrients. Overall, forest soils displayed a distinct chemical pattern, generally with lower values for most of the studied elements compared to the other land uses in the continental region.
Recommendations
These findings highlight the importance of conserving forest soils due to their unique chemical characteristics. At the same time, sustainable land management practices should be encouraged in agricultural, urban, seminatural, and mining areas to maintain balanced nutrient levels, prevent soil chemical alterations, and ensure long-term soil quality and ecosystem functioning.
Objectives
Soils are essential for ecosystem functioning because they regulate nutrient availability, support vegetation growth, and maintain chemical balance. This study evaluates how different land uses (forest, agricultural, mining, seminatural, and wetland) influence soil nutrient content in the Boreal region. The aim is to assess how land use and natural conditions affect soil fertility and quality, focusing on nutrient availability, to provide useful information for environmental management and decision-making.
Results
Agricultural soils presented higher values of several essential nutrients, higher pH, and a greater capacity to retain and exchange nutrients compared to mining soils. This indicates better chemical fertility conditions in agricultural areas than in mining-impacted soils. Mining soils generally showed lower values for most of these properties, reflecting reduced soil quality and weaker nutrient availability. Forest soils stand out by showing higher levels of certain micronutrients, particularly copper and zinc, compared to seminatural and mining soils. This suggests that forest ecosystems play an important role in maintaining specific nutrient reserves in boreal soils. Seminatural and wetland soils generally showed more balanced chemical conditions compared to more heavily disturbed areas.
Recommendations
It is important to conserve forest, seminatural, and wetland ecosystems in boreal regions due to their role in maintaining soil balance. In agricultural areas, sustainable nutrient management is recommended to preserve soil fertility over time. In mining-affected soils, restoration measures such as adding organic matter, revegetation, and soil rehabilitation are needed to improve soil quality and support long-term ecosystem recovery.
Objectives
Soils are essential for ecosystem functioning because they regulate nutrient availability, support vegetation growth, and maintain chemical balance. This study evaluates how different land uses (forest, agricultural, mining, seminatural, and wetland) influence soil nutrient content in the Boreal region. The aim is to assess how land use and natural conditions affect soil fertility and quality, focusing on nutrient availability, to provide useful information for environmental management and decision-making.
Results
Agricultural soils presented higher values of several essential nutrients, higher pH, and a greater capacity to retain and exchange nutrients compared to mining soils. This indicates better chemical fertility conditions in agricultural areas than in mining-impacted soils. Mining soils generally showed lower values for most of these properties, reflecting reduced soil quality and weaker nutrient availability. Forest soils stand out by showing higher levels of certain micronutrients, particularly copper and zinc, compared to seminatural and mining soils. This suggests that forest ecosystems play an important role in maintaining specific nutrient reserves in boreal soils. Seminatural and wetland soils generally showed more balanced chemical conditions compared to more heavily disturbed areas.
Recommendations
It is important to conserve forest, seminatural, and wetland ecosystems in boreal regions due to their role in maintaining soil balance. In agricultural areas, sustainable nutrient management is recommended to preserve soil fertility over time. In mining-affected soils, restoration measures such as adding organic matter, revegetation, and soil rehabilitation are needed to improve soil quality and support long-term ecosystem recovery.
Objectives
Soils are the base of ecosystems, as they control the availability of nutrients, support plant growth, and influence overall environmental quality. This study examines how different land uses (urban, agricultural, mining, seminatural, and wetland) affect soil fertility in the Atlantic region, with the aim of understanding how land management shapes soil fertility and nutrient conditions.
Results
Mining soils tended to contain higher amounts of some nutrients such as potassium, zinc, phosphorus, and manganese when compared with seminatural soils. Agricultural soils also showed high levels of these same nutrients, meaning that both mining and farming areas tended to be richer in certain elements. Seminatural soils showed better conditions for holding and exchanging nutrients, and higher levels of elements like calcium, magnesium, iron, copper, boron, and sulfates. These soils also tended to be less acidic than mining soils, indicating more balanced conditions for soil health.
Recommendations
These findings underline the key role of seminatural areas in keeping soils stable and in good condition. At the same time, it is important that agricultural and mining lands are managed in a more sustainable way to prevent nutrient imbalances and further soil degradation. Careful soil management in these areas is essential to ensure that soil quality is maintained over the long term in the Atlantic region.
Objectives
Soils are the base of ecosystems, as they control the availability of nutrients, support plant growth, and influence overall environmental quality. This study examines how different land uses (urban, agricultural, mining, seminatural, and wetland) affect soil fertility in the Atlantic region, with the aim of understanding how land management shapes soil fertility and nutrient conditions.
Results
Mining soils tended to contain higher amounts of some nutrients such as potassium, zinc, phosphorus, and manganese when compared with seminatural soils. Agricultural soils also showed high levels of these same nutrients, meaning that both mining and farming areas tended to be richer in certain elements. Seminatural soils showed better conditions for holding and exchanging nutrients, and higher levels of elements like calcium, magnesium, iron, copper, boron, and sulfates. These soils also tended to be less acidic than mining soils, indicating more balanced conditions for soil health.
Recommendations
These findings underline the key role of seminatural areas in keeping soils stable and in good condition. At the same time, it is important that agricultural and mining lands are managed in a more sustainable way to prevent nutrient imbalances and further soil degradation. Careful soil management in these areas is essential to ensure that soil quality is maintained over the long term in the Atlantic region.
Objectives
Soils are essential for ecosystem health because they store nutrients, support plant growth, and regulate key chemical processes. This study investigates how different land uses (forest, agricultural, industrial, seminatural, and wetland) affect soil nutrient status and chemical balance in Alpine regions. The focus is on understanding how human activities influence soil fertility in a way that is easy to interpret and relevant for environmental management.
Results
Agricultural soils stand out as the most altered, with lower levels of essential nutrients and a reduced ability to retain and exchange them compared to the other land uses. They also tended to be more acidic than the rest of the soils studied. In contrast, forest, industrial, seminatural, and wetland land uses generally maintained a more balanced nutrient status. However, agricultural soils showed higher concentrations of some elements such as boron, zinc, and sulfates compared to forest and industrial soils, indicating that farming practices can change how nutrients are distributed in the soil.
Recommendations
Sustainable practices such as increasing organic matter inputs, reducing intensive soil disturbance, and optimizing fertilizer use can help restore nutrient balance and improve soil health. Maintaining more natural areas such as forests, wetlands, and seminatural zones is also essential, as they help preserve soil fertility and support long-term ecosystem stability.
Objectives
Soils are essential for ecosystem health because they store nutrients, support plant growth, and regulate key chemical processes. This study investigates how different land uses (forest, agricultural, industrial, seminatural, and wetland) affect soil nutrient status and chemical balance in Alpine regions. The focus is on understanding how human activities influence soil fertility in a way that is easy to interpret and relevant for environmental management.
Results
Agricultural soils stand out as the most altered, with lower levels of essential nutrients and a reduced ability to retain and exchange them compared to the other land uses. They also tended to be more acidic than the rest of the soils studied. In contrast, forest, industrial, seminatural, and wetland land uses generally maintained a more balanced nutrient status. However, agricultural soils showed higher concentrations of some elements such as boron, zinc, and sulfates compared to forest and industrial soils, indicating that farming practices can change how nutrients are distributed in the soil.
Recommendations
Sustainable practices such as increasing organic matter inputs, reducing intensive soil disturbance, and optimizing fertilizer use can help restore nutrient balance and improve soil health. Maintaining more natural areas such as forests, wetlands, and seminatural zones is also essential, as they help preserve soil fertility and support long-term ecosystem stability.
Objectives:
Soils vary widely across Europe due to differences in climate, vegetation, and environmental conditions. This study explores how different biogeographic regions (Alpine, Atlantic, Boreal, Mediterranean, and Continental) influence on soil nutrient availability in order to better understand broad patterns of soil fertility at the European scale.
Results:
The results show that the Boreal soils stand out with higher levels of important nutrients and a greater ability to retain them, especially compared to Mediterranean soils. These boreal soils also contained higher amounts of elements such as calcium, iron, magnesium, and manganese, which are important for soil quality and plant growth. Mediterranean soils showed a different pattern. They generally had lower levels of sulfates and boron and tended to have a higher pH than soils in the other regions. In contrast, Alpine, Atlantic, Boreal, and Continental soils were more similar to each other and usually had more acidic conditions. Overall, the strongest contrast was between Boreal and Mediterranean regions, showing how climate and environmental conditions strongly shape soil characteristics across Europe.
Recommendations:
These findings highlight the importance of adapting soil management to regional conditions. In Mediterranean areas, improving soil balance and nutrient availability is especially important. In Boreal regions, the focus should be on protecting their naturally high soil fertility. Understanding these regional differences can help guide better land management and support healthier soils across Europe.
Objectives:
Soils vary widely across Europe due to differences in climate, vegetation, and environmental conditions. This study explores how different biogeographic regions (Alpine, Atlantic, Boreal, Mediterranean, and Continental) influence on soil nutrient availability in order to better understand broad patterns of soil fertility at the European scale.
Results:
The results show that the Boreal soils stand out with higher levels of important nutrients and a greater ability to retain them, especially compared to Mediterranean soils. These boreal soils also contained higher amounts of elements such as calcium, iron, magnesium, and manganese, which are important for soil quality and plant growth. Mediterranean soils showed a different pattern. They generally had lower levels of sulfates and boron and tended to have a higher pH than soils in the other regions. In contrast, Alpine, Atlantic, Boreal, and Continental soils were more similar to each other and usually had more acidic conditions. Overall, the strongest contrast was between Boreal and Mediterranean regions, showing how climate and environmental conditions strongly shape soil characteristics across Europe.
Recommendations:
These findings highlight the importance of adapting soil management to regional conditions. In Mediterranean areas, improving soil balance and nutrient availability is especially important. In Boreal regions, the focus should be on protecting their naturally high soil fertility. Understanding these regional differences can help guide better land management and support healthier soils across Europe.
Objectives
Agriculture plays a key role in climate change, as soil has the ability to either release carbon into the atmosphere or store it. Land use and management intensity influence these processes, affecting both the amount of greenhouse gases emitted and the soil’s capacity to function as a carbon sink. Five types of land use (agricultural, semi-natural, urban, mining, and industrial) and three levels of intensity (low, medium, and high) were analysed in the Mediterranean region.
Results
Land use is an important factor in the carbon cycle. The emissions of CO2 were higher in urban areas, with agricultural soils also making a significant contribution, especially those under no-tillage conditions and irrigation systems. Agricultural and urban soils stand out for their high N2O values, unlike the other land uses where emissions were very low and close to zero. Emissions in agricultural systems may be related to nitrogen inputs derived from fertilizer use. A greater carbon storage capacity was observed in semi-natural soils, both in total and particulate or active fractions, indicating better soil health. In contrast, industrial soils showed very low levels of carbon storage.
Recommendations
Soils with lower management intensity and greater vegetation cover had a higher capacity to store carbon and reduce emissions. In contrast, soils used intensively, particularly urban or agricultural soils, tended to increase CO2 and N2O emissions. Therefore, limiting tillage and increasing vegetation conservation may help strengthen and improve conditions for fertile and stable soils that are beneficial to the environment.
Objectives
Agriculture plays a key role in climate change, as soil has the ability to either release carbon into the atmosphere or store it. Land use and management intensity influence these processes, affecting both the amount of greenhouse gases emitted and the soil’s capacity to function as a carbon sink. Five types of land use (agricultural, semi-natural, urban, mining, and industrial) and three levels of intensity (low, medium, and high) were analysed in the Mediterranean region.
Results
Land use is an important factor in the carbon cycle. The emissions of CO2 were higher in urban areas, with agricultural soils also making a significant contribution, especially those under no-tillage conditions and irrigation systems. Agricultural and urban soils stand out for their high N2O values, unlike the other land uses where emissions were very low and close to zero. Emissions in agricultural systems may be related to nitrogen inputs derived from fertilizer use. A greater carbon storage capacity was observed in semi-natural soils, both in total and particulate or active fractions, indicating better soil health. In contrast, industrial soils showed very low levels of carbon storage.
Recommendations
Soils with lower management intensity and greater vegetation cover had a higher capacity to store carbon and reduce emissions. In contrast, soils used intensively, particularly urban or agricultural soils, tended to increase CO2 and N2O emissions. Therefore, limiting tillage and increasing vegetation conservation may help strengthen and improve conditions for fertile and stable soils that are beneficial to the environment.
Objectives
Agriculture plays a key role in climate change, as soil has the ability to either release carbon into the atmosphere or store it. Land use and management intensity influence these processes, affecting both the amount of greenhouse gases emitted and the soil’s capacity to function as a carbon sink. Five types of land use (agricultural, semi-natural, forest, mining, and urban) and three intensity levels (low, medium, and high) were analyzed in the Continental region.
Objectives
The highest emissions of both CO2 and N2O corresponded to semi-natural and mining soils, whereas forest and urban systems showed the lowest values. In the case of CH4, semi-natural soils also stand out, followed by forest soils. Concerning carbon storage, higher contents of both total soil organic carbon and labile carbon (particulate carbon) were observed in forest soils, while urban and semi-natural soils showed intermediate levels of carbon storage. In contrast, mining and agricultural soils showed the lowest levels of organic carbon, indicating a lower capacity for organic matter conservation.
Recommendations
Land use influences carbon dynamics and greenhouse gas emissions. These findings highlight the importance of proper soil management, as the soil’s capacity to act as a carbon sink or source depends on it and, consequently, its environmental impact can be reduced.
Objectives
Agriculture plays a key role in climate change, as soil has the ability to either release carbon into the atmosphere or store it. Land use and management intensity influence these processes, affecting both the amount of greenhouse gases emitted and the soil’s capacity to function as a carbon sink. Five types of land use (agricultural, semi-natural, forest, mining, and urban) and three intensity levels (low, medium, and high) were analyzed in the Continental region.
Objectives
The highest emissions of both CO2 and N2O corresponded to semi-natural and mining soils, whereas forest and urban systems showed the lowest values. In the case of CH4, semi-natural soils also stand out, followed by forest soils. Concerning carbon storage, higher contents of both total soil organic carbon and labile carbon (particulate carbon) were observed in forest soils, while urban and semi-natural soils showed intermediate levels of carbon storage. In contrast, mining and agricultural soils showed the lowest levels of organic carbon, indicating a lower capacity for organic matter conservation.
Recommendations
Land use influences carbon dynamics and greenhouse gas emissions. These findings highlight the importance of proper soil management, as the soil’s capacity to act as a carbon sink or source depends on it and, consequently, its environmental impact can be reduced.
Objectives
Agriculture plays a key role in climate change, as soil has the ability to either release carbon into the atmosphere or store it. Land use and management intensity influence these processes, affecting both the amount of greenhouse gases emitted and the soil’s capacity to function as a carbon sink. Five types of land use (agricultural, semi-natural, forest, mining, and wetland) and three intensity levels (low, medium, and high) were analysed in the Boreal region.
Results
Land use is an important factor in the carbon cycle. The CO2 emissions were highest in agricultural soils, followed by forest and semi-natural soils. This is explained by the greater soil disturbance and more intensive biological activity associated with management practices. Agricultural and forest soils also stand out for their high N2O values, indicating a possible relationship between greater nitrogen availability and more active microbial processes. N2O emissions were barely detected in mining and semi-natural soils. A greater carbon storage capacity was observed in mining soils, both in total and particulate or active fractions, followed by forest and semi-natural soils. This indicates a greater capacity for the conservation of organic matter.
Recommendations
Land uses with lower management intensity favoured the conservation of organic carbon fractions, whereas systems with higher management intensities tended to increase greenhouse gas emissions.
Objectives
Agriculture plays a key role in climate change, as soil has the ability to either release carbon into the atmosphere or store it. Land use and management intensity influence these processes, affecting both the amount of greenhouse gases emitted and the soil’s capacity to function as a carbon sink. Five types of land use (agricultural, semi-natural, forest, mining, and wetland) and three intensity levels (low, medium, and high) were analysed in the Boreal region.
Results
Land use is an important factor in the carbon cycle. The CO2 emissions were highest in agricultural soils, followed by forest and semi-natural soils. This is explained by the greater soil disturbance and more intensive biological activity associated with management practices. Agricultural and forest soils also stand out for their high N2O values, indicating a possible relationship between greater nitrogen availability and more active microbial processes. N2O emissions were barely detected in mining and semi-natural soils. A greater carbon storage capacity was observed in mining soils, both in total and particulate or active fractions, followed by forest and semi-natural soils. This indicates a greater capacity for the conservation of organic matter.
Recommendations
Land uses with lower management intensity favoured the conservation of organic carbon fractions, whereas systems with higher management intensities tended to increase greenhouse gas emissions.
Objectives
Agriculture plays a key role in climate change. Soil can either release carbon into the atmosphere or store it. Land use and soil management intensity affect these processes, greenhouse gas emissions, and the soil’s function as a carbon sink. Five land uses (agricultural, semi-natural, urban, mining, and wetland) and three intensity levels (low, medium, and high) were analysed in the Atlantic region.
Results
obtained show that land use is an important factor in the carbon cycle. In the Atlantic region, wetlands had the highest CO2 emission values, followed by semi-natural and agricultural soils, whereas mining soils showed the lowest values. The highest N2O emissions were associated with the same land uses (semi-natural and agriculture), possibly related to moisture and nutrient availability, as well as soil management practices. In the case of CH4, the opposite pattern was observed: mining and semi-natural soils stand out with the highest values, while urban areas and wetlands showed much lower emissions. Regarding the soil’s capacity to store carbon, semi-natural soils clearly stand out by presenting the highest values, reflecting better soil conservation and quality. Mining soils also showed relatively high values of stored carbon, whereas agricultural soils presented lower amounts.
Recommendations
Soils with greater vegetation cover and lower levels of disturbance, such as semi-natural soils, promoted carbon storage and improved soil health. Land uses with more intensive soil management increased the instability of stored carbon and favoured emissions. Therefore, supporting conservation practices and less intensive management may contribute to improve soil fertility and generate long-term environmental benefits.
Objectives
Agriculture plays a key role in climate change. Soil can either release carbon into the atmosphere or store it. Land use and soil management intensity affect these processes, greenhouse gas emissions, and the soil’s function as a carbon sink. Five land uses (agricultural, semi-natural, urban, mining, and wetland) and three intensity levels (low, medium, and high) were analysed in the Atlantic region.
Results
obtained show that land use is an important factor in the carbon cycle. In the Atlantic region, wetlands had the highest CO2 emission values, followed by semi-natural and agricultural soils, whereas mining soils showed the lowest values. The highest N2O emissions were associated with the same land uses (semi-natural and agriculture), possibly related to moisture and nutrient availability, as well as soil management practices. In the case of CH4, the opposite pattern was observed: mining and semi-natural soils stand out with the highest values, while urban areas and wetlands showed much lower emissions. Regarding the soil’s capacity to store carbon, semi-natural soils clearly stand out by presenting the highest values, reflecting better soil conservation and quality. Mining soils also showed relatively high values of stored carbon, whereas agricultural soils presented lower amounts.
Recommendations
Soils with greater vegetation cover and lower levels of disturbance, such as semi-natural soils, promoted carbon storage and improved soil health. Land uses with more intensive soil management increased the instability of stored carbon and favoured emissions. Therefore, supporting conservation practices and less intensive management may contribute to improve soil fertility and generate long-term environmental benefits.
Objectives
Agriculture plays a key role in climate change. Soil can either release carbon into the atmosphere or store it. Land use and soil management intensity affect these processes, greenhouse gas emissions, and the soil’s function as a carbon sink. Five land uses (agricultural, semi-natural, forest, wetland, and industrial) and three intensity levels (low, medium, and high) were analysed in the Alpine region.
Results
There were important differences among the land uses in this region, both in carbon emissions and carbon storage. The CO2 emissions were highest in semi-natural soils, followed by forest areas and wetlands, while industrial soils showed lower values. Agricultural soils showed high N2O emissions compared to the other land uses. Regarding carbon storage, wetlands showed the greatest accumulation of total organic carbon, while forest and wetland soils presented higher values of labile carbon (particulate organic carbon). In contrast, agricultural soils showed the lowest values of soil organic carbon.
Recommendations
Wetlands and forest areas play a fundamental role in carbon storage and in maintaining soil quality. More intensive land uses, especially agricultural areas, increase greenhouse gas emissions, particularly N2O. The results highlight the importance of maintaining vegetation cover and implementing sustainable management practices so that soils can function in a way that is beneficial to the environment.
Objectives
Agriculture plays a key role in climate change. Soil can either release carbon into the atmosphere or store it. Land use and soil management intensity affect these processes, greenhouse gas emissions, and the soil’s function as a carbon sink. Five land uses (agricultural, semi-natural, forest, wetland, and industrial) and three intensity levels (low, medium, and high) were analysed in the Alpine region.
Results
There were important differences among the land uses in this region, both in carbon emissions and carbon storage. The CO2 emissions were highest in semi-natural soils, followed by forest areas and wetlands, while industrial soils showed lower values. Agricultural soils showed high N2O emissions compared to the other land uses. Regarding carbon storage, wetlands showed the greatest accumulation of total organic carbon, while forest and wetland soils presented higher values of labile carbon (particulate organic carbon). In contrast, agricultural soils showed the lowest values of soil organic carbon.
Recommendations
Wetlands and forest areas play a fundamental role in carbon storage and in maintaining soil quality. More intensive land uses, especially agricultural areas, increase greenhouse gas emissions, particularly N2O. The results highlight the importance of maintaining vegetation cover and implementing sustainable management practices so that soils can function in a way that is beneficial to the environment.
Objectives
Soils play a central role in regulating climate, as they can both store carbon and release it into the atmosphere in the form of greenhouse gases. These processes are strongly influenced by land use and the intensity of soil management, which determine the balance between carbon sequestration and emissions. Different climatic regions (Mediterranean, Atlantic, Alpine, Boreal, and Continental) were analysed, considering in each of them five types of land use selected among agricultural, semi-natural, forest, urban, mining, industrial, and wetland systems, evaluated under three levels of management intensity (low, medium, and high).
Results
Land use is an important factor in carbon dynamics and greenhouse gas emissions. The highest CO2 and N2O emissions were mainly associated with soils subjected to greater human intervention, whereas soils with greater vegetation cover and lower levels of disturbance were more effective at storing carbon. Soil CO2 emissions tended to be higher in agricultural, urban, or semi-natural land uses, depending on the climate and the type of activity carried out. In most regions, agricultural soils stand out for their high N2O emissions, which were strongly related to fertilizer use. Regarding CH4, the pattern was much more variable and depended on the region. In regions such as the Atlantic or Alpine, semi-natural soils stand out, whereas in regions such as the Mediterranean, agricultural and urban soils showed higher emissions.
Recommendations
Lower management intensity favoured carbon conservation, whereas intensive land uses accelerated carbon loss and increased emissions. This highlights the importance of maintaining vegetation cover, reducing tillage, and applying more sustainable management practices in order to improve soil health and reduce environmental impact.
Objectives
Soils play a central role in regulating climate, as they can both store carbon and release it into the atmosphere in the form of greenhouse gases. These processes are strongly influenced by land use and the intensity of soil management, which determine the balance between carbon sequestration and emissions. Different climatic regions (Mediterranean, Atlantic, Alpine, Boreal, and Continental) were analysed, considering in each of them five types of land use selected among agricultural, semi-natural, forest, urban, mining, industrial, and wetland systems, evaluated under three levels of management intensity (low, medium, and high).
Results
Land use is an important factor in carbon dynamics and greenhouse gas emissions. The highest CO2 and N2O emissions were mainly associated with soils subjected to greater human intervention, whereas soils with greater vegetation cover and lower levels of disturbance were more effective at storing carbon. Soil CO2 emissions tended to be higher in agricultural, urban, or semi-natural land uses, depending on the climate and the type of activity carried out. In most regions, agricultural soils stand out for their high N2O emissions, which were strongly related to fertilizer use. Regarding CH4, the pattern was much more variable and depended on the region. In regions such as the Atlantic or Alpine, semi-natural soils stand out, whereas in regions such as the Mediterranean, agricultural and urban soils showed higher emissions.
Recommendations
Lower management intensity favoured carbon conservation, whereas intensive land uses accelerated carbon loss and increased emissions. This highlights the importance of maintaining vegetation cover, reducing tillage, and applying more sustainable management practices in order to improve soil health and reduce environmental impact.
Objectives
Earthworms are important ‘ecosystem engineers’. Depending on species and ecological group (surface-dwelling (epigeic), deep-burrowing (anecic), shallow-burrowing (endogeic)) they contribute in specific ways to maintaining several soil functions. Changes in their communities can, hence, affect the soils capacity for use and its ability to provide ecosystem services. Against this background, the effects of three intensity levels of management (high, medium, low) of five regionally characteristic land use types (urban, agricultural, mining, industrial, semi-natural) on the earthworm community were investigated in the Mediterranean region (Southern Spain).
Results
Most soils did not provide suitable habitat conditions for earthworm communities. Earthworms were detected in only two of the five land-use types. Regardless of management intensity, the soils of agricultural, mining and industrial sites showed no earthworm populations at all. This is likely due to rather unfavorable low soil moisture levels. Only in urban soils, under high and medium intensity levels, single individuals of one earthworm species each were detected. The same applies to the lowest land use intensity at the semi-natural sites. Based on these results, a positive effect would be expected from incorporating organic matter (mowing with residue incorporation) and from dense, vertically stratified vegetation compared to low vegetation.
Recommendations
Mediterranean dry conditions strongly limited earthworm occurrence, largely restricting their usefulness as bioindicators across land uses. These findings highlight the need to complement earthworm assessments with alternative biological indicators better adapted to dry Mediterranean conditions.
Objectives
Earthworms are important ‘ecosystem engineers’. Depending on species and ecological group (surface-dwelling (epigeic), deep-burrowing (anecic), shallow-burrowing (endogeic)) they contribute in specific ways to maintaining several soil functions. Changes in their communities can, hence, affect the soils capacity for use and its ability to provide ecosystem services. Against this background, the effects of three intensity levels of management (high, medium, low) of five regionally characteristic land use types (urban, agricultural, mining, industrial, semi-natural) on the earthworm community were investigated in the Mediterranean region (Southern Spain).
Results
Most soils did not provide suitable habitat conditions for earthworm communities. Earthworms were detected in only two of the five land-use types. Regardless of management intensity, the soils of agricultural, mining and industrial sites showed no earthworm populations at all. This is likely due to rather unfavorable low soil moisture levels. Only in urban soils, under high and medium intensity levels, single individuals of one earthworm species each were detected. The same applies to the lowest land use intensity at the semi-natural sites. Based on these results, a positive effect would be expected from incorporating organic matter (mowing with residue incorporation) and from dense, vertically stratified vegetation compared to low vegetation.
Recommendations
Mediterranean dry conditions strongly limited earthworm occurrence, largely restricting their usefulness as bioindicators across land uses. These findings highlight the need to complement earthworm assessments with alternative biological indicators better adapted to dry Mediterranean conditions.
Objectives
Earthworms are important ‘ecosystem engineers’. Depending on species and ecological group (surface-dwelling (epigeic), deep-burrowing (anecic), shallow-burrowing (endogeic)) they contribute to maintaining several soil functions. Changes in their communities can, hence, affect the soils’ ability to provide ecosystem services. This study investigated how three intensity levels of use (high, medium, low) across five regionally characteristic land use types (urban, agricultural, mining (renaturation), semi-natural (grassland), forest) affect the earthworm community in Germany’s Continental region.
Results
Erthworms were specifically affected by land use intensity, depending on the land use type. Individual numbers were highest numbers in intensively managed grasslands, moderately managed urban soils, and low-intensity mining sites. Across all three land use types, primarily endogeic species benefited from the respective management intensity. The results indicate that, in restored soils, it takes years for a diverse earthworm population to become established, and that, as a natural soil structure develops, the share of endogeic species increases at the expense of epigeic ones. Grassland data show that endogeic species tolerate intensive fertilization and mowing, while epigeic species benefit from restrictions on both. Earthworm ecosystem services can be maintained under moderate to high management intensity, not only under low-use conditions. Urban soils moreover confirmed that earthworm groups tolerated moderate green space maintenance but were negatively affected by microplastic contamination, which should be avoided.
Recommendations
Earthworm varied by land use and management intensity, with endogeic species showing high tolerance to intensive practices. Moderate to intensive management could maintain earthworm-mediated ecosystem services, but reducing disturbance and microplastic contamination is essential for preserving diverse communities.
Objectives
Earthworms are important ‘ecosystem engineers’. Depending on species and ecological group (surface-dwelling (epigeic), deep-burrowing (anecic), shallow-burrowing (endogeic)) they contribute to maintaining several soil functions. Changes in their communities can, hence, affect the soils’ ability to provide ecosystem services. This study investigated how three intensity levels of use (high, medium, low) across five regionally characteristic land use types (urban, agricultural, mining (renaturation), semi-natural (grassland), forest) affect the earthworm community in Germany’s Continental region.
Results
Erthworms were specifically affected by land use intensity, depending on the land use type. Individual numbers were highest numbers in intensively managed grasslands, moderately managed urban soils, and low-intensity mining sites. Across all three land use types, primarily endogeic species benefited from the respective management intensity. The results indicate that, in restored soils, it takes years for a diverse earthworm population to become established, and that, as a natural soil structure develops, the share of endogeic species increases at the expense of epigeic ones. Grassland data show that endogeic species tolerate intensive fertilization and mowing, while epigeic species benefit from restrictions on both. Earthworm ecosystem services can be maintained under moderate to high management intensity, not only under low-use conditions. Urban soils moreover confirmed that earthworm groups tolerated moderate green space maintenance but were negatively affected by microplastic contamination, which should be avoided.
Recommendations
Earthworm varied by land use and management intensity, with endogeic species showing high tolerance to intensive practices. Moderate to intensive management could maintain earthworm-mediated ecosystem services, but reducing disturbance and microplastic contamination is essential for preserving diverse communities.
Objectives
Earthworms are important ‘ecosystem engineers’. Depending on species and ecological group (surface-dwelling (epigeic), deep-burrowing (anecic), shallow-burrowing (endogeic)) they contribute in specific ways to maintaining several soil functions. Changes in their communities can, hence, affect the soils capacity for use and its ability to provide ecosystem services. This study examined how three land-use intensities (high, medium, low) across five land-use types (forest, agricultural, mining, semi-natural, wetland) types affect earthworm communities in Latvia’s Boreal region.
Results
Earthworm communities in wetland and forests exhibited the highest individual numbers and biomasses under the highest abundance and biomass under intensive use with drainage. Results from these sites indicate a high tolerance to eutrophication and non-native plants, with epigeic species particularly benefiting from dense undergrowth and anthropogenic drainage measures. Communities in arable land, by contrast, were in best condition at sites with lowest intensity of use, which in this case are precisely those with highest groundwater levels and no drainage. These results indicate that in often waterlogged and rather acidic soils of this region, moisture plays a crucial role in how land use intensities affect earthworms. Provided that the water content ensures an adequate soil environment, tolerance to anthropogenic measures is comparatively high. No intensity effects were found in spruce stands at semi-natural sites. Since earthworms were absent from bog mining sites, alternative indicators are needed.
Recommendations
Soil moisture was the main factor controlling earthworm in Boreal soils, with water drainage increase their abundance. These findings highlight the importance of hydrological conditions when assessing earthworms as indicators, while other biological indicators are needed for undrained peatlands and acidic soils.
Objectives
Earthworms are important ‘ecosystem engineers’. Depending on species and ecological group (surface-dwelling (epigeic), deep-burrowing (anecic), shallow-burrowing (endogeic)) they contribute in specific ways to maintaining several soil functions. Changes in their communities can, hence, affect the soils capacity for use and its ability to provide ecosystem services. This study examined how three land-use intensities (high, medium, low) across five land-use types (forest, agricultural, mining, semi-natural, wetland) types affect earthworm communities in Latvia’s Boreal region.
Results
Earthworm communities in wetland and forests exhibited the highest individual numbers and biomasses under the highest abundance and biomass under intensive use with drainage. Results from these sites indicate a high tolerance to eutrophication and non-native plants, with epigeic species particularly benefiting from dense undergrowth and anthropogenic drainage measures. Communities in arable land, by contrast, were in best condition at sites with lowest intensity of use, which in this case are precisely those with highest groundwater levels and no drainage. These results indicate that in often waterlogged and rather acidic soils of this region, moisture plays a crucial role in how land use intensities affect earthworms. Provided that the water content ensures an adequate soil environment, tolerance to anthropogenic measures is comparatively high. No intensity effects were found in spruce stands at semi-natural sites. Since earthworms were absent from bog mining sites, alternative indicators are needed.
Recommendations
Soil moisture was the main factor controlling earthworm in Boreal soils, with water drainage increase their abundance. These findings highlight the importance of hydrological conditions when assessing earthworms as indicators, while other biological indicators are needed for undrained peatlands and acidic soils.
Objectives
Earthworms are important ‘ecosystem engineers’. Depending on species and ecological group (surface-dwelling (epigeic), deep-burrowing (anecic), shallow-burrowing (endogeic)) they contribute in specific ways to maintaining several soil functions. Changes in their communities can, hence, affect the soils capacity for use and its ability to provide ecosystem services. Against this background, the effects of three intensity levels of use (high, medium, low) of five regionally characteristic land use types (urban, agricultural, mining, semi-natural, wetland) on the earthworm community were investigated in the Atlantic region (Northern Spain).
Results
The land uses with largest earthworm communities (urban, wetland) exhibited highest individual numbers, species numbers, and biomasses under the highest intensity of use. In this context, the application of compost or the incorporation of green manure compensated for intensive human use, provided that soil moisture is kept at an appropriate level (by irrigation or drainage). Earthworm communities in vineyards, by contrast, thrived best under moderate management intensity. Here, epigeic and anecic species benefited from vegetation clearing, which is restricted to the inter-rows. Sporadic application of herbicides and fungicides was tolerated. The results from the mining and semi-natural sites showed that stone quarry tailings and afforested areas generally provided unfavorable habitats for earthworms in this region.
Recommendations
The use of earthworms as indicators is limited in the Atlantic region, and it is recommended to use other biological indicators for comparative assessments of those land-use types that are subjected to severe anthropogenic impact.
Objectives
Earthworms are important ‘ecosystem engineers’. Depending on species and ecological group (surface-dwelling (epigeic), deep-burrowing (anecic), shallow-burrowing (endogeic)) they contribute in specific ways to maintaining several soil functions. Changes in their communities can, hence, affect the soils capacity for use and its ability to provide ecosystem services. Against this background, the effects of three intensity levels of use (high, medium, low) of five regionally characteristic land use types (urban, agricultural, mining, semi-natural, wetland) on the earthworm community were investigated in the Atlantic region (Northern Spain).
Results
The land uses with largest earthworm communities (urban, wetland) exhibited highest individual numbers, species numbers, and biomasses under the highest intensity of use. In this context, the application of compost or the incorporation of green manure compensated for intensive human use, provided that soil moisture is kept at an appropriate level (by irrigation or drainage). Earthworm communities in vineyards, by contrast, thrived best under moderate management intensity. Here, epigeic and anecic species benefited from vegetation clearing, which is restricted to the inter-rows. Sporadic application of herbicides and fungicides was tolerated. The results from the mining and semi-natural sites showed that stone quarry tailings and afforested areas generally provided unfavorable habitats for earthworms in this region.
Recommendations
The use of earthworms as indicators is limited in the Atlantic region, and it is recommended to use other biological indicators for comparative assessments of those land-use types that are subjected to severe anthropogenic impact.
Objectives
Earthworms are important ‘ecosystem engineers’. Depending on species and ecological group (surface-dwelling (epigeic), deep-burrowing (anecic), shallow-burrowing (endogeic)) they contribute in specific ways to maintaining several soil functions. They loosen the soil, improve aeration and water absorption, enhance soil fertility by decomposing organic matter, and play a crucial role in the soil food web and in bioregulation. Against this background, the effects of three intensity levels of use (high, medium, low) of five regionally characteristic land use types (forest, agricultural, industrial, semi-natural, wetland) on the earthworm community were investigated in the Alpine region (Switzerland).
Results
The earthworm community in this region exhibited a comparatively high tolerance to human land-use practices. Indeed, three of the five land-use types (industrial, semi-natural, wetland) exhibited lowest individual numbers and biomasses at the least intensive level of use. Drainage and skiing therefore do not appear to pose any long-term problems. At the arable and grassland sites, the earthworm community – particularly epigeic and anecic species – actually benefited from the most intensive form of land use. Here, higher fertilizer rates seemed to compensate for the negative effects of intensive tillage and frequent mowing. Forest sites showed the lowest individual and species numbers and only a slight positive effect resulting from increased tree age and reduced grazing intensity.
Recommendations
Earthworm communities showed a high tolerance and adaptability to intensive land use when moisture and nutrient availability were sufficient. These findings suggest that suitable habitat conditions can mitigate the negative impacts of human management on earthworm populations and their ecological functions.
Objectives
Earthworms are important ‘ecosystem engineers’. Depending on species and ecological group (surface-dwelling (epigeic), deep-burrowing (anecic), shallow-burrowing (endogeic)) they contribute in specific ways to maintaining several soil functions. They loosen the soil, improve aeration and water absorption, enhance soil fertility by decomposing organic matter, and play a crucial role in the soil food web and in bioregulation. Against this background, the effects of three intensity levels of use (high, medium, low) of five regionally characteristic land use types (forest, agricultural, industrial, semi-natural, wetland) on the earthworm community were investigated in the Alpine region (Switzerland).
Results
The earthworm community in this region exhibited a comparatively high tolerance to human land-use practices. Indeed, three of the five land-use types (industrial, semi-natural, wetland) exhibited lowest individual numbers and biomasses at the least intensive level of use. Drainage and skiing therefore do not appear to pose any long-term problems. At the arable and grassland sites, the earthworm community – particularly epigeic and anecic species – actually benefited from the most intensive form of land use. Here, higher fertilizer rates seemed to compensate for the negative effects of intensive tillage and frequent mowing. Forest sites showed the lowest individual and species numbers and only a slight positive effect resulting from increased tree age and reduced grazing intensity.
Recommendations
Earthworm communities showed a high tolerance and adaptability to intensive land use when moisture and nutrient availability were sufficient. These findings suggest that suitable habitat conditions can mitigate the negative impacts of human management on earthworm populations and their ecological functions.
Objectives
Effects of three intensities of use (high, medium, low) of seven land use types (urban, agricultural, mining, industrial, semi-natural, forest, wetland) on earthworm communities as soil indicators were studied in five biogeographical regions across Europe (Alpine, Atlantic, Boreal, Continental, Mediterranean). The results may help to improve land use sustainability.
Results
Earthworm numbers and biomass decreased in the order Continental > Alpine > Boreal > Atlantic > Mediterranean, with low soil moisture limiting their use as indicators in Mediterranean areas. Earthworm numbers showed land use-specific effects depending on regional conditions. The largest earthworm communities varied by region: agricultural and semi-natural sites in the Alpine region, urban and wetland sites in the Atlantic region, agricultural and wetland sites in the Boreal region, and urban and semi-natural sites in the Continental region. Impacts of land use intensity varied depending on land use type and region: earthworm numbers in arable soils were highest under high (Alpine), medium (Atlantic) or low (Boreal) intensity. Earthworms tolerated intensive management in urban, semi-natural, and forest sites, including mowing, fertilization, grazing, eutrophication, tree cutting and green space maintenance. In afforested areas, increased vegetation cover and height improved conditions. Wetlands were only suitable habitats under high land use intensity (drainage), as earthworms do not survive in waterlogged soils. At industrial and mining sites, the potential of earthworms as indicators is limited.
Recommendations
Regional environmental conditions, especially soil moisture, strongly influence earthworm communities. Earthworms are useful soil indicators in many ecosystems but are less suitable in dry Mediterranean soils and highly disturbed industrial or mining areas. Earthworm assessments should be adapted to regional and habitat conditions for accurate soil evaluation.
Objectives
Effects of three intensities of use (high, medium, low) of seven land use types (urban, agricultural, mining, industrial, semi-natural, forest, wetland) on earthworm communities as soil indicators were studied in five biogeographical regions across Europe (Alpine, Atlantic, Boreal, Continental, Mediterranean). The results may help to improve land use sustainability.
Results
Earthworm numbers and biomass decreased in the order Continental > Alpine > Boreal > Atlantic > Mediterranean, with low soil moisture limiting their use as indicators in Mediterranean areas. Earthworm numbers showed land use-specific effects depending on regional conditions. The largest earthworm communities varied by region: agricultural and semi-natural sites in the Alpine region, urban and wetland sites in the Atlantic region, agricultural and wetland sites in the Boreal region, and urban and semi-natural sites in the Continental region. Impacts of land use intensity varied depending on land use type and region: earthworm numbers in arable soils were highest under high (Alpine), medium (Atlantic) or low (Boreal) intensity. Earthworms tolerated intensive management in urban, semi-natural, and forest sites, including mowing, fertilization, grazing, eutrophication, tree cutting and green space maintenance. In afforested areas, increased vegetation cover and height improved conditions. Wetlands were only suitable habitats under high land use intensity (drainage), as earthworms do not survive in waterlogged soils. At industrial and mining sites, the potential of earthworms as indicators is limited.
Recommendations
Regional environmental conditions, especially soil moisture, strongly influence earthworm communities. Earthworms are useful soil indicators in many ecosystems but are less suitable in dry Mediterranean soils and highly disturbed industrial or mining areas. Earthworm assessments should be adapted to regional and habitat conditions for accurate soil evaluation.
Objectives
Macrofauna contributes to decomposition, humus formation, nutrient cycling, and soil structure. This study examined how three levels of land-use intensity across five land-use types (urban, agricultural, mining, semi-natural, and industrial) affect the trophic groups (saprophages, predators, herbivores, omnivores) of the macrofauna (isopods, millipedes, centipedes, insects, spiders) in Spain’s Mediterranean region, aiming to support more sustainable land management.
Results
Soil moisture is the main factor influencing land-use effects on moisture-sensitive macrofauna. Semi-natural sites with low vegetation and shrubs supported higher densities than open pine forests due to the comparatively better protection against dehydration offered by low-growing compared to tall-growing plants. In urban and industrial soils, litter cover and leaving grass cuttings improved abundance and biomass, while vegetation loss and frequent traffic reduced macrofauna. The lack of vegetation and frequent traffic, by contrast, reduced the occurrence of macrofauna. In general, omnivorous generalists such as ants dominated in these land use types.
Reduced tillage intensity can increase individual numbers, biomass and diversity of macrofauna in arable soils. Older restoration sites with dense, high vegetation but without fertilization show more individuals but lower diversity, while younger restoration sites with sparse, low vegetation but a history of long-term input of pig slurry, positive effects of organic fertilization on macrofaunal diversity can be expected.
Recommendations
Soil moisture and vegetation cover were key drivers of macrofauna communities. Management practices that reduced disturbance and enhanced litter or vegetation cover promoted macrofauna abundance, biomass and diversity, whereas bare soils and frequent traffic had negative effects. Sustainable management adapted to Mediterranean conditions is essential for conserving soil biodiversity and ecosystem functions.
Objectives
Macrofauna contributes to decomposition, humus formation, nutrient cycling, and soil structure. This study examined how three levels of land-use intensity across five land-use types (urban, agricultural, mining, semi-natural, and industrial) affect the trophic groups (saprophages, predators, herbivores, omnivores) of the macrofauna (isopods, millipedes, centipedes, insects, spiders) in Spain’s Mediterranean region, aiming to support more sustainable land management.
Results
Soil moisture is the main factor influencing land-use effects on moisture-sensitive macrofauna. Semi-natural sites with low vegetation and shrubs supported higher densities than open pine forests due to the comparatively better protection against dehydration offered by low-growing compared to tall-growing plants. In urban and industrial soils, litter cover and leaving grass cuttings improved abundance and biomass, while vegetation loss and frequent traffic reduced macrofauna. The lack of vegetation and frequent traffic, by contrast, reduced the occurrence of macrofauna. In general, omnivorous generalists such as ants dominated in these land use types.
Reduced tillage intensity can increase individual numbers, biomass and diversity of macrofauna in arable soils. Older restoration sites with dense, high vegetation but without fertilization show more individuals but lower diversity, while younger restoration sites with sparse, low vegetation but a history of long-term input of pig slurry, positive effects of organic fertilization on macrofaunal diversity can be expected.
Recommendations
Soil moisture and vegetation cover were key drivers of macrofauna communities. Management practices that reduced disturbance and enhanced litter or vegetation cover promoted macrofauna abundance, biomass and diversity, whereas bare soils and frequent traffic had negative effects. Sustainable management adapted to Mediterranean conditions is essential for conserving soil biodiversity and ecosystem functions.
Objectives
Macrofauna is crucial for decomposition, humus formation, nutrient cycling, and soil structure development. This study investigated how three levels of land-use intensity (high, medium, low) across five typical land-use types (urban, agricultural, mining/renatured, semi-natural, and forest) affect the trophic groups (saprophages, predators, herbivores, omnivores) of the macrofauna (isopods, millipedes, centipedes, insects, spiders, other arthropods) in Germany’s Continental region.
Results
Urban lawns can support high macrofauna abundance, but communities are often less diverse due to dominance by generalist species such as ants and dipteran larvae. Biomass decreased with higher foot traffic and more frequent maintenance. In such sites, zones with shrubs/herbs could help to increase animal diversity. A key aspect in connection with urban soil life is the input of microplastics. The use of artificial turf on sports pitches should be reconsidered, as it introduces a huge amount of plastic into surrounding soils. In agricultural and semi-natural sites, the frequency of maize cultivation in cereal rotations had little influence on the macrofauna, while increasing mowing frequency and fertilization intensity had negative effects. In forestry and renaturation, a medium level of use intensity was most beneficial. A dense tree stand and the litter cover protected against solar radiation and dehydration. Younger forests with numerous low-growing herbaceous plants had higher individual numbers and biomass. Soil macrofauna tolerated moderate forest management.
Recommendations´
Macrofauna communities responded positively to moderate land use intensity, particularly in forestry and renaturation sites with dense vegetation and litter cover. Intensive mowing, fertilization and urban disturbance reduced biomass and diversity, despite high abundances of generalist organisms. Balanced land management is essential for maintaining diverse and functional soil macrofauna.
Objectives
Macrofauna is crucial for decomposition, humus formation, nutrient cycling, and soil structure development. This study investigated how three levels of land-use intensity (high, medium, low) across five typical land-use types (urban, agricultural, mining/renatured, semi-natural, and forest) affect the trophic groups (saprophages, predators, herbivores, omnivores) of the macrofauna (isopods, millipedes, centipedes, insects, spiders, other arthropods) in Germany’s Continental region.
Results
Urban lawns can support high macrofauna abundance, but communities are often less diverse due to dominance by generalist species such as ants and dipteran larvae. Biomass decreased with higher foot traffic and more frequent maintenance. In such sites, zones with shrubs/herbs could help to increase animal diversity. A key aspect in connection with urban soil life is the input of microplastics. The use of artificial turf on sports pitches should be reconsidered, as it introduces a huge amount of plastic into surrounding soils. In agricultural and semi-natural sites, the frequency of maize cultivation in cereal rotations had little influence on the macrofauna, while increasing mowing frequency and fertilization intensity had negative effects. In forestry and renaturation, a medium level of use intensity was most beneficial. A dense tree stand and the litter cover protected against solar radiation and dehydration. Younger forests with numerous low-growing herbaceous plants had higher individual numbers and biomass. Soil macrofauna tolerated moderate forest management.
Recommendations´
Macrofauna communities responded positively to moderate land use intensity, particularly in forestry and renaturation sites with dense vegetation and litter cover. Intensive mowing, fertilization and urban disturbance reduced biomass and diversity, despite high abundances of generalist organisms. Balanced land management is essential for maintaining diverse and functional soil macrofauna.
Objectives
Macrofauna is essential for organic matter decomposition and humus formation, influencing soil functions and ecosystem services. This study examined how three land-use intensities (high, medium, low) across five land-use types (forest, agricultural, mining, semi-natural, and wetland) affect the trophic groups (saprophages, predators, herbivores, omnivores) of the macrofauna (isopods, millipedes, centipedes, insects, spiders, other arthropods) in Latvia’s Boreal region, with the aim of supporting more sustainable land management under regional biogeographical conditions.
Results
Moderately moist conditions, adapted vegetation, and low mowing frequency promoted soil macrofauna, while dense ground vegetation particularly benefited predators. Accordingly, beneficial impacts were detected in forest, agricultural and mining (peat extraction) sites under a medium-level intensity of use. Individual numbers thereby give a stronger indication of promotion than biomass. Soil moisture was a key factor in the semi-natural and wetland sites. Drainage reduced biomass and abundance, while spruce monocultures significantly increased both compared to mixed spruce–deciduous stands. Predators, especially spiders, millipedes, and short-winged insects, benefited from the coniferous litter, which provided optimal protection from light and dehydration. Soil moisture and ground cover were the main factors regulating land-use effects on macrofauna.
Recommendations
Soil moisture and ground vegetation cover were the main factors regulating macrofauna communities in the Boreal region. Medium-intensity management generally promoted macrofauna abundance and trophic diversity, particularly under favourable moisture conditions and protective vegetation cover. These findings highlight the importance of adapting land management practices to regional ecological conditions to support soil biodiversity and ecosystem functioning.
Objectives
Macrofauna is essential for organic matter decomposition and humus formation, influencing soil functions and ecosystem services. This study examined how three land-use intensities (high, medium, low) across five land-use types (forest, agricultural, mining, semi-natural, and wetland) affect the trophic groups (saprophages, predators, herbivores, omnivores) of the macrofauna (isopods, millipedes, centipedes, insects, spiders, other arthropods) in Latvia’s Boreal region, with the aim of supporting more sustainable land management under regional biogeographical conditions.
Results
Moderately moist conditions, adapted vegetation, and low mowing frequency promoted soil macrofauna, while dense ground vegetation particularly benefited predators. Accordingly, beneficial impacts were detected in forest, agricultural and mining (peat extraction) sites under a medium-level intensity of use. Individual numbers thereby give a stronger indication of promotion than biomass. Soil moisture was a key factor in the semi-natural and wetland sites. Drainage reduced biomass and abundance, while spruce monocultures significantly increased both compared to mixed spruce–deciduous stands. Predators, especially spiders, millipedes, and short-winged insects, benefited from the coniferous litter, which provided optimal protection from light and dehydration. Soil moisture and ground cover were the main factors regulating land-use effects on macrofauna.
Recommendations
Soil moisture and ground vegetation cover were the main factors regulating macrofauna communities in the Boreal region. Medium-intensity management generally promoted macrofauna abundance and trophic diversity, particularly under favourable moisture conditions and protective vegetation cover. These findings highlight the importance of adapting land management practices to regional ecological conditions to support soil biodiversity and ecosystem functioning.
Objectives
Macrofauna is essential for organic matter decomposition and humus formation, influencing soil functions and ecosystem services. This study evaluated how three land-use intensity levels (high, medium, low) across five land-use types (urban, agricultural, mining, semi-natural, wetland) on affect macrofauna trophic groups in the Atlantic region of Northern Spain, aiming to support sustainable land management adapted to regional conditions.
Results
We observed positive effects on the macrofauna through low management intensity in urban, agricultural and semi-natural soils, and through medium management intensity in wetland and mining sites. Individual numbers, biomass and trophic diversity can be promoted by avoiding traffic impacts, by reducing external inputs (pesticides, chemical fertilizers) and by perennial tree-rich vegetation. Young forests in the context of renaturation measures particularly promoted predators within the macrofauna community. This is presumably due to the still loose layering of the soil, providing a wide range of pore spaces as habitats for smaller prey organisms. In wetland sites, saprophagous organisms benefited from the annual clearing of grasses and shrubs on otherwise unused land. A high intensity of use in this region, regardless of land use type, tended to have rather negative effects on the macrofauna and thus on its functions and the services it provides.
Recommendations
Macrofauna communities generally benefited from low to medium land-use intensity, with reduced disturbance, lower external inputs, and diverse vegetation supporting higher abundance, biomass, and trophic diversity. Intensive land use often had negative effects, highlighting the need for sustainable management to preserve soil biodiversity and ecosystem services.
Objectives
Macrofauna is essential for organic matter decomposition and humus formation, influencing soil functions and ecosystem services. This study evaluated how three land-use intensity levels (high, medium, low) across five land-use types (urban, agricultural, mining, semi-natural, wetland) on affect macrofauna trophic groups in the Atlantic region of Northern Spain, aiming to support sustainable land management adapted to regional conditions.
Results
We observed positive effects on the macrofauna through low management intensity in urban, agricultural and semi-natural soils, and through medium management intensity in wetland and mining sites. Individual numbers, biomass and trophic diversity can be promoted by avoiding traffic impacts, by reducing external inputs (pesticides, chemical fertilizers) and by perennial tree-rich vegetation. Young forests in the context of renaturation measures particularly promoted predators within the macrofauna community. This is presumably due to the still loose layering of the soil, providing a wide range of pore spaces as habitats for smaller prey organisms. In wetland sites, saprophagous organisms benefited from the annual clearing of grasses and shrubs on otherwise unused land. A high intensity of use in this region, regardless of land use type, tended to have rather negative effects on the macrofauna and thus on its functions and the services it provides.
Recommendations
Macrofauna communities generally benefited from low to medium land-use intensity, with reduced disturbance, lower external inputs, and diverse vegetation supporting higher abundance, biomass, and trophic diversity. Intensive land use often had negative effects, highlighting the need for sustainable management to preserve soil biodiversity and ecosystem services.
Objectives
Soil biodiversity loss is a global threat to soil health. Knowledge of how key organisms are affected by main types and intensities of land use is crucial to maintain soils healthy and make their use sustainable. To create knowledge in this context, the impact of 3 intensities (high, medium, low) of 5 region-specific land use types (forest, agricultural, semi-natural (grassland), wetland, industrial (ski runs)) on trophic groups (saprophages, predators, herbivores, omnivores) of the soil macrofauna (isopods, myriapods (millipedes and centipedes), insects, spiders, other arthropods) was investigated in the Alpine region (Switzerland). According to its trophic and functional diversity, the macrofauna plays an important role in the soil food web and for many soil processes such as nutrient cycling. Hence, changes within macrofauna communities provide valuable information on the soils’ potential for delivering ecosystem services.
Results
The macrofauna community of an intensively grazed pasture had higher number of individuals but lower biomass and trophic diversity than pastured with low grazing intensity or an alpine forest without grazing. All other land use types showed a more uniform picture, with highest numbers of individuals and biomass at medium management intensity in agricultural sites or at medium and high management intensity in grassland and wetland sites. Macrofauna benefited from organic fertilization and drainage measures. The impact of ski runs on the macrofauna was surprisingly low. Although the share of omnivorous organisms was slightly higher in the areas outside the ski slope than inside, the total number of individuals and the biomass did not differ significantly.
Recommendations
The effects of land use intensity on macrofauna depend on the type of land use. Indeed, the lowest land use intensities were not necessarily the most favorable for these organisms.
Objectives
Soil biodiversity loss is a global threat to soil health. Knowledge of how key organisms are affected by main types and intensities of land use is crucial to maintain soils healthy and make their use sustainable. To create knowledge in this context, the impact of 3 intensities (high, medium, low) of 5 region-specific land use types (forest, agricultural, semi-natural (grassland), wetland, industrial (ski runs)) on trophic groups (saprophages, predators, herbivores, omnivores) of the soil macrofauna (isopods, myriapods (millipedes and centipedes), insects, spiders, other arthropods) was investigated in the Alpine region (Switzerland). According to its trophic and functional diversity, the macrofauna plays an important role in the soil food web and for many soil processes such as nutrient cycling. Hence, changes within macrofauna communities provide valuable information on the soils’ potential for delivering ecosystem services.
Results
The macrofauna community of an intensively grazed pasture had higher number of individuals but lower biomass and trophic diversity than pastured with low grazing intensity or an alpine forest without grazing. All other land use types showed a more uniform picture, with highest numbers of individuals and biomass at medium management intensity in agricultural sites or at medium and high management intensity in grassland and wetland sites. Macrofauna benefited from organic fertilization and drainage measures. The impact of ski runs on the macrofauna was surprisingly low. Although the share of omnivorous organisms was slightly higher in the areas outside the ski slope than inside, the total number of individuals and the biomass did not differ significantly.
Recommendations
The effects of land use intensity on macrofauna depend on the type of land use. Indeed, the lowest land use intensities were not necessarily the most favorable for these organisms.
Objectives
The study examined how three levels of land-use intensity across seven land-use types (urban, agricultural, mining, industrial, semi-natural, forest, wetland) influence macrofauna communities and soil processes in five European biogeographical regions: Alpine, Atlantic, Boreal, Continental, and Mediterranean.
Results
Macrofauna numbers decreased in the order: Continental > Alpine > Boreal > Atlantic > Mediterranean, with biomass being highest in the Alpine region. The community composition within a land use type varied between regions. While Alpine forests were mainly inhabited by omnivores and Boreal ones by predators, saprophages and predators dominated in Continental forests. Communities in wetlands were dominated by omnivores in the Alpine, and by predators in the Boreal region, but were trophically diverse in the Atlantic region. Urban soils were dominated by omnivores, especially ants, across all regions. Lower urban management intensity increased macrofauna diversity mainly in Atlantic soils, with weaker or no effects in Continental and Mediterranean regions. Intensive agriculture generally reduced organism abundance in most regions. Macrofauna showed low tolerance to intensive agriculture practices such as high fertilizer use, pesticides, frequent mowing, and tillage. In semi-natural areas, responses to land-use intensity varied by region, with highest benefits at high intensity in Alpine, Boreal, and Mediterranean regions, but at low intensity in Atlantic and Continental regions.Mining sites generally supported higher macrofauna communities under medium disturbance levels. Moist soils with mixed vegetation and no tillage or waterlogging favored macrofauna.
Recommendations
Macrofauna responded differently to management intensity depending on region and land use, highlighting the role of local environmental conditions. Reducing disturbance and maintaining moist, diverse habitats are key for conserving macrofauna and their ecosystem functions.
Objectives
The study examined how three levels of land-use intensity across seven land-use types (urban, agricultural, mining, industrial, semi-natural, forest, wetland) influence macrofauna communities and soil processes in five European biogeographical regions: Alpine, Atlantic, Boreal, Continental, and Mediterranean.
Results
Macrofauna numbers decreased in the order: Continental > Alpine > Boreal > Atlantic > Mediterranean, with biomass being highest in the Alpine region. The community composition within a land use type varied between regions. While Alpine forests were mainly inhabited by omnivores and Boreal ones by predators, saprophages and predators dominated in Continental forests. Communities in wetlands were dominated by omnivores in the Alpine, and by predators in the Boreal region, but were trophically diverse in the Atlantic region. Urban soils were dominated by omnivores, especially ants, across all regions. Lower urban management intensity increased macrofauna diversity mainly in Atlantic soils, with weaker or no effects in Continental and Mediterranean regions. Intensive agriculture generally reduced organism abundance in most regions. Macrofauna showed low tolerance to intensive agriculture practices such as high fertilizer use, pesticides, frequent mowing, and tillage. In semi-natural areas, responses to land-use intensity varied by region, with highest benefits at high intensity in Alpine, Boreal, and Mediterranean regions, but at low intensity in Atlantic and Continental regions.Mining sites generally supported higher macrofauna communities under medium disturbance levels. Moist soils with mixed vegetation and no tillage or waterlogging favored macrofauna.
Recommendations
Macrofauna responded differently to management intensity depending on region and land use, highlighting the role of local environmental conditions. Reducing disturbance and maintaining moist, diverse habitats are key for conserving macrofauna and their ecosystem functions.
Objectives
Soil biodiversity loss is a global threat to soil health. Understanding how key organisms are affected by types and intensities of land use is crucial to maintain soils healthy and make their use as sustainable as possible. To gain knowledge in this context, effects of 3 intensities (high, medium, low) of 5 region-specific land use types (agricultural, semi-natural, urban, mining, industrial) on soil microarthropods (springtails and mites) were investigated in the Mediterranean region (Aragon, Spain). As important representatives of the soil mesofauna, microarthropods play a decisive role in many soil processes such as nutrient cycling, soil structure formation or bioregulation. Changes in their community composition can, hence, provide valuable information on the provision of relevant ecosystem services and the soils’ capacity for use.
Results
Both microarthropod groups were similarly affected by different land use types and intensities. In four of the five considered land uses, individual numbers were clearly higher under low land use intensity than under medium or high intensity of use. This effect increased in the following order of land use types: mining < semi-natural < urban < agricultural, and was accompanied by a proportional rise of Oribatida, important decomposers within the mite community. Surprisingly, only in industrially used soils the microarthropods remain completely unaffected by the degree of land use intensity. Here, the number of individuals was generally low.
Recommendations
Soil microarthropods in the Mediterranean region benefit from the lowest disturbance in most land use types. This limited tolerance to anthropogenic use – relative to that in other biogeographical areas - is likely attributable to the generally rather unfavorable living conditions in the soils of this region, which are often exposed to severe drought and pronounced erosion.
Objectives
Soil biodiversity loss is a global threat to soil health. Understanding how key organisms are affected by types and intensities of land use is crucial to maintain soils healthy and make their use as sustainable as possible. To gain knowledge in this context, effects of 3 intensities (high, medium, low) of 5 region-specific land use types (agricultural, semi-natural, urban, mining, industrial) on soil microarthropods (springtails and mites) were investigated in the Mediterranean region (Aragon, Spain). As important representatives of the soil mesofauna, microarthropods play a decisive role in many soil processes such as nutrient cycling, soil structure formation or bioregulation. Changes in their community composition can, hence, provide valuable information on the provision of relevant ecosystem services and the soils’ capacity for use.
Results
Both microarthropod groups were similarly affected by different land use types and intensities. In four of the five considered land uses, individual numbers were clearly higher under low land use intensity than under medium or high intensity of use. This effect increased in the following order of land use types: mining < semi-natural < urban < agricultural, and was accompanied by a proportional rise of Oribatida, important decomposers within the mite community. Surprisingly, only in industrially used soils the microarthropods remain completely unaffected by the degree of land use intensity. Here, the number of individuals was generally low.
Recommendations
Soil microarthropods in the Mediterranean region benefit from the lowest disturbance in most land use types. This limited tolerance to anthropogenic use – relative to that in other biogeographical areas - is likely attributable to the generally rather unfavorable living conditions in the soils of this region, which are often exposed to severe drought and pronounced erosion.
Objectives
Soil biodiversity loss is a global threat to soil health. Understanding how key organisms are affected by types and intensities of land use is crucial to make soil management as sustainable as possible. To gain knowledge in this context, effects of 3 intensities (high, medium, low) of 5 region-specific land use types (agricultural, semi-natural, forest, urban, mining) on soil microarthropods (springtails, mites) were investigated in the Continental region (Germany). As important representatives of the soil mesofauna, microarthropods play a decisive role in many soil processes such as bioregulation, nutrient cycling or soil structure formation. Changes in their community composition allow conclusions about the soils’ potential to provide ecosystem services.
Results
Mite diversity was generally relatively high, regardless of use or management intensity. It could be demonstrated that land use effects were intensity‑dependent and did not differ between springtails and mites in four of the five land use types (urban, agricultural, mining and semi-natural). Individual numbers of both organism groups and springtail species richness were highest in the mining sites at the highest land use intensity, in the semi‑natural sites at intermediate land use intensity, and in the urban sites at the lowest land use intensity. No intensity effects were detected in agricultural sites. Only the forest soils reflected a specific effect of land use intensity on both microarthropod groups: under low land use intensity, mite numbers were markedly higher, while collembolan numbers were lower than under medium or high land use intensity.
Recommendations
Depending on land use type, different management intensities are suitable for promoting soil microarthropod diversity in this region. Decisions on intensity levels are therefore to be made specifically on a case‑by‑case basis. Here, minimizing land use intensity is not always the most effective option.
Objectives
Soil biodiversity loss is a global threat to soil health. Understanding how key organisms are affected by types and intensities of land use is crucial to make soil management as sustainable as possible. To gain knowledge in this context, effects of 3 intensities (high, medium, low) of 5 region-specific land use types (agricultural, semi-natural, forest, urban, mining) on soil microarthropods (springtails, mites) were investigated in the Continental region (Germany). As important representatives of the soil mesofauna, microarthropods play a decisive role in many soil processes such as bioregulation, nutrient cycling or soil structure formation. Changes in their community composition allow conclusions about the soils’ potential to provide ecosystem services.
Results
Mite diversity was generally relatively high, regardless of use or management intensity. It could be demonstrated that land use effects were intensity‑dependent and did not differ between springtails and mites in four of the five land use types (urban, agricultural, mining and semi-natural). Individual numbers of both organism groups and springtail species richness were highest in the mining sites at the highest land use intensity, in the semi‑natural sites at intermediate land use intensity, and in the urban sites at the lowest land use intensity. No intensity effects were detected in agricultural sites. Only the forest soils reflected a specific effect of land use intensity on both microarthropod groups: under low land use intensity, mite numbers were markedly higher, while collembolan numbers were lower than under medium or high land use intensity.
Recommendations
Depending on land use type, different management intensities are suitable for promoting soil microarthropod diversity in this region. Decisions on intensity levels are therefore to be made specifically on a case‑by‑case basis. Here, minimizing land use intensity is not always the most effective option.
Objectives
Soil biodiversity loss is a global threat to soil health. Understanding how key organisms are affected by types and intensities of land use is crucial to maintain soils healthy and make their use as sustainable as possible. To gain knowledge in this context, effects of 3 intensity levels (high, medium, low) of 5 region-specific land use types (forest, agricultural, mining, semi-natural, wetland) on soil microarthropods (springtails, mites) were investigated in the Boreal region (Latvia). As important representatives of the soil mesofauna, microarthropods play a decisive role in many soil processes such as nutrient cycling, soil structure formation or bioregulation. Changes in their community compositions allow conclusions about the soils’ potential to provide ecosystem services and its capacity of use.
Results
Individual numbers of microarthropods were relatively low compared to other biogeographical regions. Thus, the collembolan data only allowed conclusions on how they are affected by land-use intensity in forests and arable sites. Here, the data indicate a clear boost in individual numbers when land use intensity is low. The mites exhibited the same effect at the forest sites. In contrast, three of the five land use types (agriculture, mining, semi‑natural) showed positive effects of a medium land use intensity on the mite community (abundance and diversity), while wetland sites showed positive effects at both, moderate and high intensities. This positive effect of high land-use intensity in wetlands is mostly likely due to large-scale drainage through anthropogenic measures, creating drier and more favorable habitats for terrestrial organisms.
Recommendations
Mites are more suitable indicators than collembolans and that effects of land-use intensity on the soil mesofauna are land use type-specific, with all three intensity levels being able to cause positive effects.
Objectives
Soil biodiversity loss is a global threat to soil health. Understanding how key organisms are affected by types and intensities of land use is crucial to maintain soils healthy and make their use as sustainable as possible. To gain knowledge in this context, effects of 3 intensity levels (high, medium, low) of 5 region-specific land use types (forest, agricultural, mining, semi-natural, wetland) on soil microarthropods (springtails, mites) were investigated in the Boreal region (Latvia). As important representatives of the soil mesofauna, microarthropods play a decisive role in many soil processes such as nutrient cycling, soil structure formation or bioregulation. Changes in their community compositions allow conclusions about the soils’ potential to provide ecosystem services and its capacity of use.
Results
Individual numbers of microarthropods were relatively low compared to other biogeographical regions. Thus, the collembolan data only allowed conclusions on how they are affected by land-use intensity in forests and arable sites. Here, the data indicate a clear boost in individual numbers when land use intensity is low. The mites exhibited the same effect at the forest sites. In contrast, three of the five land use types (agriculture, mining, semi‑natural) showed positive effects of a medium land use intensity on the mite community (abundance and diversity), while wetland sites showed positive effects at both, moderate and high intensities. This positive effect of high land-use intensity in wetlands is mostly likely due to large-scale drainage through anthropogenic measures, creating drier and more favorable habitats for terrestrial organisms.
Recommendations
Mites are more suitable indicators than collembolans and that effects of land-use intensity on the soil mesofauna are land use type-specific, with all three intensity levels being able to cause positive effects.
Objectives
Soil biodiversity loss is a global threat to soil health. Understanding how key organisms are affected by types and intensities of land use is crucial to make soil management as sustainable as possible. To gain knowledge in this context, effects of 3 intensities (high, medium, low) of 5 region-specific land use types (agricultural, semi-natural, wetland, urban, mining) on soil microarthropods (springtails, mites) were investigated in the Atlantic region (Galicia, Spain). As important representatives of the soil mesofauna, microarthropods play a decisive role in many soil processes such as nutrient cycling, bioregulation or soil structure formation. Changes in their community composition allow conclusions about the soils’ potential to provide ecosystem services.
Results
Mite diversity was lowest under medium land use intensity in four out of five land use types (urban, agricultural, mining, semi-natural). This negative effect of medium-level use is also reflected in low microarthropod numbers in the corresponding urban and agricultural soils. In soils with low or high land use intensity, the counts were clearly higher. The lowest use intensity in the mining sites was favorable for mites. The highest use intensity in the semi-natural and wetland sites was favorable for springtails.
Recommendations
A general promotion of microarthropod groups through the implementation of a targeted land use intensity is challenging. As a general trend, however, it can be stated that a medium land use intensity is rather unfavorable for the entirety of microarthropods. In order to protect biodiversity and not endanger the food web balance, it is recommended to decide on a site-specific basis which land use intensity should be applied over which period of time.
Objectives
Soil biodiversity loss is a global threat to soil health. Understanding how key organisms are affected by types and intensities of land use is crucial to make soil management as sustainable as possible. To gain knowledge in this context, effects of 3 intensities (high, medium, low) of 5 region-specific land use types (agricultural, semi-natural, wetland, urban, mining) on soil microarthropods (springtails, mites) were investigated in the Atlantic region (Galicia, Spain). As important representatives of the soil mesofauna, microarthropods play a decisive role in many soil processes such as nutrient cycling, bioregulation or soil structure formation. Changes in their community composition allow conclusions about the soils’ potential to provide ecosystem services.
Results
Mite diversity was lowest under medium land use intensity in four out of five land use types (urban, agricultural, mining, semi-natural). This negative effect of medium-level use is also reflected in low microarthropod numbers in the corresponding urban and agricultural soils. In soils with low or high land use intensity, the counts were clearly higher. The lowest use intensity in the mining sites was favorable for mites. The highest use intensity in the semi-natural and wetland sites was favorable for springtails.
Recommendations
A general promotion of microarthropod groups through the implementation of a targeted land use intensity is challenging. As a general trend, however, it can be stated that a medium land use intensity is rather unfavorable for the entirety of microarthropods. In order to protect biodiversity and not endanger the food web balance, it is recommended to decide on a site-specific basis which land use intensity should be applied over which period of time.
Objectives
Soil biodiversity loss is a global threat to soil health. Knowledge of how key organisms are affected by the main types and intensities of land use is crucial to make soil management as sustainable as possible. To generate knowledge in this context, the influence of 3 intensities (high, medium, low) of 5 region-specific land use types (forest, agricultural, semi-natural, wetland, industrial (here: ski runs)) on soil microarthropods (springtails and mites) was investigated in the Alpine region (Switzerland). As important representatives of the soil mesofauna, microarthropods, play a decisive role in numerous soil processes such as nutrient cycling, bioregulation or soil structure formation. Assessing their occurrence provides valuable information on the provision of relevant ecosystem services and the soils’ capacity for use.
Results
Low management intensity in forests increased individual numbers of mites and species numbers of springtails, while intensive agriculture reduced them. In arable and wetland soils, a medium management intensity increased the share of predatory mites (Gamasina). This effect can be considered positive, as Gamasina generally react sensitively to anthropogenic measures and, as important bioregulators, are valuable bioindicators for ecological conditions of soils. This beneficial effect of medium land use intensity compared to high or low one is confirmed by higher individual and species numbers of springtails in agricultural, semi-natural and wetland soils. Soils of the ski runs also exhibited a high microarthropod diversity at medium use intensity. However, here highest abundances were detected at low use intensity.
Recommendations
Medium intensive balanced forms of land use are often beneficial for soil fauna. A complete reduction of management intensity is so not always the best solution for promoting soil biodiversity.
Objectives
Soil biodiversity loss is a global threat to soil health. Knowledge of how key organisms are affected by the main types and intensities of land use is crucial to make soil management as sustainable as possible. To generate knowledge in this context, the influence of 3 intensities (high, medium, low) of 5 region-specific land use types (forest, agricultural, semi-natural, wetland, industrial (here: ski runs)) on soil microarthropods (springtails and mites) was investigated in the Alpine region (Switzerland). As important representatives of the soil mesofauna, microarthropods, play a decisive role in numerous soil processes such as nutrient cycling, bioregulation or soil structure formation. Assessing their occurrence provides valuable information on the provision of relevant ecosystem services and the soils’ capacity for use.
Results
Low management intensity in forests increased individual numbers of mites and species numbers of springtails, while intensive agriculture reduced them. In arable and wetland soils, a medium management intensity increased the share of predatory mites (Gamasina). This effect can be considered positive, as Gamasina generally react sensitively to anthropogenic measures and, as important bioregulators, are valuable bioindicators for ecological conditions of soils. This beneficial effect of medium land use intensity compared to high or low one is confirmed by higher individual and species numbers of springtails in agricultural, semi-natural and wetland soils. Soils of the ski runs also exhibited a high microarthropod diversity at medium use intensity. However, here highest abundances were detected at low use intensity.
Recommendations
Medium intensive balanced forms of land use are often beneficial for soil fauna. A complete reduction of management intensity is so not always the best solution for promoting soil biodiversity.
Objectives
Effects of three use intensities (high, medium, low) of seven land use types (urban, agricultural, mining, industrial, semi-natural, forest, wetland) on microarthropods (springtails, mites) as drivers of important soil processes were investigated in five biogeographical regions across Europe (Alpine, Atlantic, Boreal, Continental, Mediterranean). The results can help to make future land use more sustainable.
Results
Springtail and mite abundances decreased in the order: Continental > Alpine > Mediterranean > Atlantic > Boreal, with functional groups varying according to regional conditions. Generalist mites were more common in Continental and Mediterranean soils but scarce in Alpine and Boreal regions. Land-use intensity effects differed between organism groups and regions: wetlands mainly affected springtails, while mites showed region-specific responses in mining soils.
Agricultural land-use intensity effects varied among regions but were consistent for springtails and mites, with highest abundances occurring under different intensities depending on the region or showing no effect. Semi-natural, forest, and urban land uses showed more consistent responses across regions, suggesting that microarthropods tolerate moderate management but are more sensitive to intensive forestry and green space maintenance measures. In Alpine soils, springtails appeared more sensitive than mites to ski-slope land use.
Recommendations
Overall, the effects of land use intensity on soil microarthropods were highly dependent on both biogeographical region and land use type. Springtails and mites showed different sensitivities and responses, reflecting their distinct ecological strategies. These results indicate that soil microarthropod communities are shaped by complex interactions between regional conditions and management practices, highlighting the importance of region-specific approaches for soil biodiversity conservation.
Objectives
Effects of three use intensities (high, medium, low) of seven land use types (urban, agricultural, mining, industrial, semi-natural, forest, wetland) on microarthropods (springtails, mites) as drivers of important soil processes were investigated in five biogeographical regions across Europe (Alpine, Atlantic, Boreal, Continental, Mediterranean). The results can help to make future land use more sustainable.
Results
Springtail and mite abundances decreased in the order: Continental > Alpine > Mediterranean > Atlantic > Boreal, with functional groups varying according to regional conditions. Generalist mites were more common in Continental and Mediterranean soils but scarce in Alpine and Boreal regions. Land-use intensity effects differed between organism groups and regions: wetlands mainly affected springtails, while mites showed region-specific responses in mining soils.
Agricultural land-use intensity effects varied among regions but were consistent for springtails and mites, with highest abundances occurring under different intensities depending on the region or showing no effect. Semi-natural, forest, and urban land uses showed more consistent responses across regions, suggesting that microarthropods tolerate moderate management but are more sensitive to intensive forestry and green space maintenance measures. In Alpine soils, springtails appeared more sensitive than mites to ski-slope land use.
Recommendations
Overall, the effects of land use intensity on soil microarthropods were highly dependent on both biogeographical region and land use type. Springtails and mites showed different sensitivities and responses, reflecting their distinct ecological strategies. These results indicate that soil microarthropod communities are shaped by complex interactions between regional conditions and management practices, highlighting the importance of region-specific approaches for soil biodiversity conservation.
Objectives
Soil hosts diverse biological communities that drive essential ecosystem processes and support soil functioning. Within these communities, nematodes are valuable bioindicators because they are abundant, diverse, and respond sensitively to changes in their environment. Within the EU project BIOservicES, nematode biodiversity was assessed across different European regions to understand how it responds to land use, disturbance intensity, and environmental conditions.
In the Mediterranean pedoclimatic region,150 soil samples were collected across five land uses (urban, agricultural, mining, industrial, and semi-natural) and three levels of human disturbance. This region is characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, wetter winters, often with pronounced seasonal drought and high variability in soil moisture. Such conditions can strongly influence nematode communities by limiting overall abundance and diversity during dry periods and simplifying food web structure. But how do land use and levels of human disturbance further affect nematode community composition in this region?
Results
In the Mediterranean region, none of the land uses showed clearly distinct nematode community compositions or strong differences in biodiversity. However, it was evident that, for most land uses, nematode communities reflected nutrient-poor conditions, except for some mining and especially industrial samples. Regarding human disturbance, less disturbed systems only showed higher diversity in agricultural and industrial areas, while in the other land uses, higher disturbance tended to increase biodiversity. These patterns were likely influenced by the generally harsh climatic conditions.
Recommendations
Land use and human disturbance had limited and inconsistent effects on Mediterranean nematode communities. Additional information on management practices and physicochemical soil properties is needed to better explain these results.
Objectives
Soil hosts diverse biological communities that drive essential ecosystem processes and support soil functioning. Within these communities, nematodes are valuable bioindicators because they are abundant, diverse, and respond sensitively to changes in their environment. Within the EU project BIOservicES, nematode biodiversity was assessed across different European regions to understand how it responds to land use, disturbance intensity, and environmental conditions.
In the Mediterranean pedoclimatic region,150 soil samples were collected across five land uses (urban, agricultural, mining, industrial, and semi-natural) and three levels of human disturbance. This region is characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, wetter winters, often with pronounced seasonal drought and high variability in soil moisture. Such conditions can strongly influence nematode communities by limiting overall abundance and diversity during dry periods and simplifying food web structure. But how do land use and levels of human disturbance further affect nematode community composition in this region?
Results
In the Mediterranean region, none of the land uses showed clearly distinct nematode community compositions or strong differences in biodiversity. However, it was evident that, for most land uses, nematode communities reflected nutrient-poor conditions, except for some mining and especially industrial samples. Regarding human disturbance, less disturbed systems only showed higher diversity in agricultural and industrial areas, while in the other land uses, higher disturbance tended to increase biodiversity. These patterns were likely influenced by the generally harsh climatic conditions.
Recommendations
Land use and human disturbance had limited and inconsistent effects on Mediterranean nematode communities. Additional information on management practices and physicochemical soil properties is needed to better explain these results.
Objectives
Among soil organisms, nematodes (microscopic worms) are particularly important due to their abundance, diversity, and key roles in the soil food web. As a result, shifts in nematode communities provide clear signals of changing soil conditions, helping us better understand and protect soil health. The EU project BIOservicES investigates how soil nematode biodiversity responds to environmental pressures such as regional conditions, land use and human disturbance.
Within this project, 150 soil samples were collected in the Continental pedoclimatic region, comprising five land uses (urban, agricultural, mining, semi-natural, and forest) and three levels of human disturbance. The Continental region is characterized by a temperate continental climate, with warm to hot summers, cold winters, and relatively large seasonal temperature fluctuations, along with moderate precipitation that is often unevenly distributed throughout the year. These conditions generally support moderately abundant and diverse nematode communities. But how do land use and levels of human disturbance further influence nematode community composition in this region?
Results
In the Continental region, only semi-natural and urban areas showed relatively similar nematode communities. Urban soils showed, on average, the highest biodiversity, but, like the other land uses, results were quite variable. Agricultural soils showed less balanced communities, whereas the other land uses tended to show more well-structured communities. Regarding human disturbance, less disturbed systems tended to show higher diversity, but the effect remains inconsistent across land uses.
Recommendations
Both land use and human disturbance influenced nematode communities in Continental soils, but the patterns were not always straightforward. Additional information on management practices and physicochemical soil properties is needed to better explain these results.
Objectives
Among soil organisms, nematodes (microscopic worms) are particularly important due to their abundance, diversity, and key roles in the soil food web. As a result, shifts in nematode communities provide clear signals of changing soil conditions, helping us better understand and protect soil health. The EU project BIOservicES investigates how soil nematode biodiversity responds to environmental pressures such as regional conditions, land use and human disturbance.
Within this project, 150 soil samples were collected in the Continental pedoclimatic region, comprising five land uses (urban, agricultural, mining, semi-natural, and forest) and three levels of human disturbance. The Continental region is characterized by a temperate continental climate, with warm to hot summers, cold winters, and relatively large seasonal temperature fluctuations, along with moderate precipitation that is often unevenly distributed throughout the year. These conditions generally support moderately abundant and diverse nematode communities. But how do land use and levels of human disturbance further influence nematode community composition in this region?
Results
In the Continental region, only semi-natural and urban areas showed relatively similar nematode communities. Urban soils showed, on average, the highest biodiversity, but, like the other land uses, results were quite variable. Agricultural soils showed less balanced communities, whereas the other land uses tended to show more well-structured communities. Regarding human disturbance, less disturbed systems tended to show higher diversity, but the effect remains inconsistent across land uses.
Recommendations
Both land use and human disturbance influenced nematode communities in Continental soils, but the patterns were not always straightforward. Additional information on management practices and physicochemical soil properties is needed to better explain these results.
Objectives
Soil biodiversity plays a key role in maintaining healthy and functioning ecosystems. Nematodes (microscopic worms) are particularly important due to their abundance, diversity, and key roles in the soil food web. Therefore, the EU project BIOservicES decided to investigate how soil nematode biodiversity responds to environmental pressures such as land use and human disturbance. Previous studies have shown that nematode communities are strongly influenced by regional conditions, such as climate and soil characteristics, which underscores the importance of studying soil biodiversity at a regional level.
One hundred fifty soil samples were collected in the Boreal pedoclimatic region, comprising five land uses (forest, agricultural, mining, semi-natural, and wetland) and three levels of human disturbance. The Boreal region is characterized by a cold continental climate with long, harsh winters, short cool summers, low evaporation, and moderate precipitation (often as snow). These conditions strongly shape nematode communities. However, the extent to which land use and human disturbance influence nematode community composition in this region remains unclear.
Results
In the Boreal region, nematode communities differed between land uses, but most had comparable biodiversity, with high variability, especially in semi-natural areas and wetlands. Mining soils clearly showed lower diversity and less mature systems, indicating more disturbed conditions. Less disturbed systems showed higher diversity and more structured systems. However, in most land uses, the effect of disturbance was present, but the relationship was less clear, as it did not follow a consistent pattern.
Recommendations
Land use and disturbance influenced nematode communities in Boreal soils, but the patterns were not always straightforward. Additional information on management practices and physicochemical soil properties is needed to better explain these results.
Objectives
Soil biodiversity plays a key role in maintaining healthy and functioning ecosystems. Nematodes (microscopic worms) are particularly important due to their abundance, diversity, and key roles in the soil food web. Therefore, the EU project BIOservicES decided to investigate how soil nematode biodiversity responds to environmental pressures such as land use and human disturbance. Previous studies have shown that nematode communities are strongly influenced by regional conditions, such as climate and soil characteristics, which underscores the importance of studying soil biodiversity at a regional level.
One hundred fifty soil samples were collected in the Boreal pedoclimatic region, comprising five land uses (forest, agricultural, mining, semi-natural, and wetland) and three levels of human disturbance. The Boreal region is characterized by a cold continental climate with long, harsh winters, short cool summers, low evaporation, and moderate precipitation (often as snow). These conditions strongly shape nematode communities. However, the extent to which land use and human disturbance influence nematode community composition in this region remains unclear.
Results
In the Boreal region, nematode communities differed between land uses, but most had comparable biodiversity, with high variability, especially in semi-natural areas and wetlands. Mining soils clearly showed lower diversity and less mature systems, indicating more disturbed conditions. Less disturbed systems showed higher diversity and more structured systems. However, in most land uses, the effect of disturbance was present, but the relationship was less clear, as it did not follow a consistent pattern.
Recommendations
Land use and disturbance influenced nematode communities in Boreal soils, but the patterns were not always straightforward. Additional information on management practices and physicochemical soil properties is needed to better explain these results.
Objectives
Nematodes (microscopic worms) are key soil organisms due to their abundance, diversity, and roles in decomposition, microbial regulation, and pest control. Changes in their communities clearly reflect shifts in soil conditions, making them useful indicators of soil health. The EU project BIOservicES studies how environmental pressures such as regional conditions, land use, and human activity affect nematode biodiversity.
One hundred seventy soil samples from the Atlantic region were analyzed across five land uses (urban, agricultural, mining, semi-natural, and wetland) and three disturbance levels to assess how human activity influences nematode communities. The region’s mild, humid climate supports high nematode abundance and diversity, but the effects of land use and disturbance on community composition remain to be determined.
Results
In the Atlantic region, differences between land uses were present but not very strong. Only wetland soils tended to show a different nematode community, likely due to their unique fluctuating wet and dry conditions. Agricultural systems showed, on average, lower diversity compared to other land uses, but results vary between sites. Wetland and agricultural soils also tended to show more nutrient-enriched conditions, while mining and semi-natural soils showed the opposite. When considering human impact, less disturbed sites often showed higher diversity. This is more obvious in agricultural, semi-natural, and wetland soils, indicating that disturbance can influence nematode communities in these land uses.
Recommendations
Many land uses show similar nematode communities across Atlantic soils. However, less disturbed systems tend to support more complex and diverse soil life.
Objectives
Nematodes (microscopic worms) are key soil organisms due to their abundance, diversity, and roles in decomposition, microbial regulation, and pest control. Changes in their communities clearly reflect shifts in soil conditions, making them useful indicators of soil health. The EU project BIOservicES studies how environmental pressures such as regional conditions, land use, and human activity affect nematode biodiversity.
One hundred seventy soil samples from the Atlantic region were analyzed across five land uses (urban, agricultural, mining, semi-natural, and wetland) and three disturbance levels to assess how human activity influences nematode communities. The region’s mild, humid climate supports high nematode abundance and diversity, but the effects of land use and disturbance on community composition remain to be determined.
Results
In the Atlantic region, differences between land uses were present but not very strong. Only wetland soils tended to show a different nematode community, likely due to their unique fluctuating wet and dry conditions. Agricultural systems showed, on average, lower diversity compared to other land uses, but results vary between sites. Wetland and agricultural soils also tended to show more nutrient-enriched conditions, while mining and semi-natural soils showed the opposite. When considering human impact, less disturbed sites often showed higher diversity. This is more obvious in agricultural, semi-natural, and wetland soils, indicating that disturbance can influence nematode communities in these land uses.
Recommendations
Many land uses show similar nematode communities across Atlantic soils. However, less disturbed systems tend to support more complex and diverse soil life.
Objectives
Soils are living systems shaped by their environment, and understanding their response to human pressures is key to protecting soil health. Nematodes (microscopic worms) are particularly informative due to their abundance, diversity, and roles in decomposition, nutrient cycling, and pest regulation. Previous results have shown that nematode communities are strongly influenced by regional conditions, such as climate and soil characteristics, highlighting the importance of studying soil biodiversity at a regional level.
During the EU‑funded project BIOservicES, 150 soil samples were collected in the Alpine pedoclimatic region, covering five land uses (forest, agricultural, industrial, semi-natural, and wetland) and three levels of human disturbance. The region is characterized by a cold, harsh climate with long winters, short growing seasons, frequent freeze–thaw cycles and high precipitation (often as snow). These conditions strongly shape nematode communities, but to what extent do land use and human disturbance further influence nematode community composition in this region?
Results
Land use strongly influenced nematode communities, with semi-natural and wetland soils showing the most similar patterns. Agricultural soils had lower diversity and more nutrient-enriched food webs, while semi-natural and forest soils showed more balanced communities. Wetlands had the highest variability, likely due to changing moisture conditions, and industrial soils showed distinct but balanced communities. Higher land-use disturbance generally reduced community structure and, in some cases, diversity.
Recommendations
Both land use and level of disturbance shaped nematode communities in Alpine soils, with more natural and less disturbed systems supporting more complex and diverse soil life.
Objectives
Soils are living systems shaped by their environment, and understanding their response to human pressures is key to protecting soil health. Nematodes (microscopic worms) are particularly informative due to their abundance, diversity, and roles in decomposition, nutrient cycling, and pest regulation. Previous results have shown that nematode communities are strongly influenced by regional conditions, such as climate and soil characteristics, highlighting the importance of studying soil biodiversity at a regional level.
During the EU‑funded project BIOservicES, 150 soil samples were collected in the Alpine pedoclimatic region, covering five land uses (forest, agricultural, industrial, semi-natural, and wetland) and three levels of human disturbance. The region is characterized by a cold, harsh climate with long winters, short growing seasons, frequent freeze–thaw cycles and high precipitation (often as snow). These conditions strongly shape nematode communities, but to what extent do land use and human disturbance further influence nematode community composition in this region?
Results
Land use strongly influenced nematode communities, with semi-natural and wetland soils showing the most similar patterns. Agricultural soils had lower diversity and more nutrient-enriched food webs, while semi-natural and forest soils showed more balanced communities. Wetlands had the highest variability, likely due to changing moisture conditions, and industrial soils showed distinct but balanced communities. Higher land-use disturbance generally reduced community structure and, in some cases, diversity.
Recommendations
Both land use and level of disturbance shaped nematode communities in Alpine soils, with more natural and less disturbed systems supporting more complex and diverse soil life.
Objectives
Analysing soil biodiversity is essential for assessing soil health. Among soil organisms, nematodes (microscopic worms) are particularly important because of their abundance, diversity, and key roles in the soil food web. The European BIOservicES project decided to analyse soil samples collected across Europe from different regions, land uses, and disturbance levels to understand how nematode communities respond to environmental pressures.
Results
Soil nematode communities vary across Europe depending on environmental conditions. When comparing different levels of human disturbance, communities appeared relatively similar, suggesting that, at the European scale, human interference alone did not strongly shape nematode communities. Differences between land use types (e.g. forests, agricultural land, and urban areas) were present but only moderately distinct. In contrast, nematode communities clustered more clearly by region (Alpine, Atlantic, Boreal, Continental, Mediterranean) than by land use, indicating that geographical location plays a stronger role. This is supported by abundance data, which showed that nematode numbers varied noticeably between regions. Additionally, feeding types (like plant feeders, predators, and fungal feeders) differed across regions, reflecting changes in ecosystem functioning. Atlantic and Alpine sites showed more complex food webs, whereas Mediterranean sites appeared more disturbed and/or nutrient-limited. Boreal and Continental regions showed moderately structured, highly variable communities that overlapped more strongly with other regions.
Recommendations
Overall, these findings demonstrate that nematode communities are strongly influenced by regional factors such as climate and soil characteristics. This highlights the importance of studying soil biodiversity at a regional scale to better understand and protect soil health, and the need to complement Europe-wide soil health policies with region-specific approaches.
Objectives
Analysing soil biodiversity is essential for assessing soil health. Among soil organisms, nematodes (microscopic worms) are particularly important because of their abundance, diversity, and key roles in the soil food web. The European BIOservicES project decided to analyse soil samples collected across Europe from different regions, land uses, and disturbance levels to understand how nematode communities respond to environmental pressures.
Results
Soil nematode communities vary across Europe depending on environmental conditions. When comparing different levels of human disturbance, communities appeared relatively similar, suggesting that, at the European scale, human interference alone did not strongly shape nematode communities. Differences between land use types (e.g. forests, agricultural land, and urban areas) were present but only moderately distinct. In contrast, nematode communities clustered more clearly by region (Alpine, Atlantic, Boreal, Continental, Mediterranean) than by land use, indicating that geographical location plays a stronger role. This is supported by abundance data, which showed that nematode numbers varied noticeably between regions. Additionally, feeding types (like plant feeders, predators, and fungal feeders) differed across regions, reflecting changes in ecosystem functioning. Atlantic and Alpine sites showed more complex food webs, whereas Mediterranean sites appeared more disturbed and/or nutrient-limited. Boreal and Continental regions showed moderately structured, highly variable communities that overlapped more strongly with other regions.
Recommendations
Overall, these findings demonstrate that nematode communities are strongly influenced by regional factors such as climate and soil characteristics. This highlights the importance of studying soil biodiversity at a regional scale to better understand and protect soil health, and the need to complement Europe-wide soil health policies with region-specific approaches.
Objectives:
Soil protists regulate microbial communities, nutrient cycling, and plant growth through predation, but the effects of land use and management intensity on their diversity and functions remain unclear. This study investigated protist diversity and the factors shaping their communities across five land-use types and three management intensity levels in the Mediterranean region of Europe.
Results:
Mediterranean soils showed the highest protist diversity among all European regions studied, with approximately twice the diversity observed in Alpine soils, the least diverse region. Differences among land uses were generally smaller than in other regions, although agricultural soils often supported particularly high diversity. Management intensity barely affected diversity, only in seminatural areas were higher intensity translated into higher diversity.
Functional analyses showed that Mediterranean soils contained higher proportions of predators and phototrophic protists than other European regions, indicating more functionally diverse and complex microbial communities. Most soils showed heterogeneous functional communities, whereas urban soils were largely dominated by insect pathogens.
Mediterranean microbial communities were strongly associated with soil pH and boron availability, highlighting the role of soil chemistry. Environmental stressors such as drought, high temperatures and seasonal stress may also shape microbial diversity. Within Mediterranean soils, protist diversity was mainly driven by water-holding capacity, fungal diversity, and pH.
Recommendations:
Mediterranean soils supported highly diverse and functionally complex protist communities, but these ecosystems are also vulnerable to drought and climate stress. Management practices that preserve soil moisture, maintain balanced soil chemistry, and reduce degradation may help sustain protist diversity and ecosystem resilience under future climate change scenarios.
Objectives:
Soil protists regulate microbial communities, nutrient cycling, and plant growth through predation, but the effects of land use and management intensity on their diversity and functions remain unclear. This study investigated protist diversity and the factors shaping their communities across five land-use types and three management intensity levels in the Mediterranean region of Europe.
Results:
Mediterranean soils showed the highest protist diversity among all European regions studied, with approximately twice the diversity observed in Alpine soils, the least diverse region. Differences among land uses were generally smaller than in other regions, although agricultural soils often supported particularly high diversity. Management intensity barely affected diversity, only in seminatural areas were higher intensity translated into higher diversity.
Functional analyses showed that Mediterranean soils contained higher proportions of predators and phototrophic protists than other European regions, indicating more functionally diverse and complex microbial communities. Most soils showed heterogeneous functional communities, whereas urban soils were largely dominated by insect pathogens.
Mediterranean microbial communities were strongly associated with soil pH and boron availability, highlighting the role of soil chemistry. Environmental stressors such as drought, high temperatures and seasonal stress may also shape microbial diversity. Within Mediterranean soils, protist diversity was mainly driven by water-holding capacity, fungal diversity, and pH.
Recommendations:
Mediterranean soils supported highly diverse and functionally complex protist communities, but these ecosystems are also vulnerable to drought and climate stress. Management practices that preserve soil moisture, maintain balanced soil chemistry, and reduce degradation may help sustain protist diversity and ecosystem resilience under future climate change scenarios.
Objectives:
Soil protists play key roles in regulating microbial communities, nutrient cycling, and plant growth, but the effects of land use and management intensity on their diversity and functional composition remain poorly understood. This study examined protist diversity and the factors shaping their communities across five land-use types and three management intensity levels in the Continental region of Europe.
Results:
Continental soils showed intermediate protist diversity, with generally small differences among land uses. Agricultural, forest, mining, and semi-natural soils showed similar diversity, whereas urban soils had substantially lower diversity. Management intensity influenced protist diversity differently across land uses. Forest and urban soils showed a U-shaped pattern, with the lowest diversity at intermediate intensity. In contrast, semi-natural soils displayed the highest diversity under low-intensity management, while mining soils showed low intensity associated with lower diversity.
Functional composition varied among land uses. While parasitic protists dominated most soils, agricultural and semi-natural soils contained higher proportions of predator and phototrophic groups, indicating greater functional diversity. Urban soils may negatively affect biodiversity and ecosystem functions such as nutrient cycling. In the Continental region, microbial diversity was mainly associated with soil water content, pH, bioavailable cobalt and nickel, total vanadium, and soil aggregate size distribution.
Recommendations:
The strong decline in diversity observed in urban soils highlights the importance of sustainable urban planning and soil conservation measures. Maintaining vegetation cover, reducing soil sealing and compaction, and preserving soil structure may help protect protist diversity and the ecosystem functions it supports.
Objectives:
Soil protists play key roles in regulating microbial communities, nutrient cycling, and plant growth, but the effects of land use and management intensity on their diversity and functional composition remain poorly understood. This study examined protist diversity and the factors shaping their communities across five land-use types and three management intensity levels in the Continental region of Europe.
Results:
Continental soils showed intermediate protist diversity, with generally small differences among land uses. Agricultural, forest, mining, and semi-natural soils showed similar diversity, whereas urban soils had substantially lower diversity. Management intensity influenced protist diversity differently across land uses. Forest and urban soils showed a U-shaped pattern, with the lowest diversity at intermediate intensity. In contrast, semi-natural soils displayed the highest diversity under low-intensity management, while mining soils showed low intensity associated with lower diversity.
Functional composition varied among land uses. While parasitic protists dominated most soils, agricultural and semi-natural soils contained higher proportions of predator and phototrophic groups, indicating greater functional diversity. Urban soils may negatively affect biodiversity and ecosystem functions such as nutrient cycling. In the Continental region, microbial diversity was mainly associated with soil water content, pH, bioavailable cobalt and nickel, total vanadium, and soil aggregate size distribution.
Recommendations:
The strong decline in diversity observed in urban soils highlights the importance of sustainable urban planning and soil conservation measures. Maintaining vegetation cover, reducing soil sealing and compaction, and preserving soil structure may help protect protist diversity and the ecosystem functions it supports.
Objectives:
Soil protists regulate microbial communities through predation, consequently releasing nutrients, and supporting important ecosystem functions such as nutrient cycling and plant growth. Their diversity is influenced by factors such as climate, soil properties, and land use. However, how land use land use and its intensity affect soil protist diversity and its functional composition, remains unknown. In this study, we investigated protist diversity and the main factors shaping their communities in the Boreal biogeographic region of Europe, across five land use types, each including low, medium and high management intensity.
Results:
Boreal soils showed intermediate protist diversity, lower than Mediterranean soils (35% less) but higher than Alpine soils (50% more). Protist diversity was relatively similar across different Boreal land uses. Agricultural, forest, mining, semi-natural, and wetland sites displayed only small differences in diversity, especially compared with the stronger land-use effects observed in other European regions. However, management intensity influenced diversity in forests and wetlands, increasing diversity in forests but decreasing it in wetlands.
Functional analyses showed that Boreal protist communities were dominated by insect parasites and microbiome predators, followed by phototrophic groups, indicating relatively high functional diversity. Community diversity and composition were mainly driven by soil electrical conductivity, moisture, pH, cation exchange capacity, and organic carbon and nitrogen content.
Recommendations:
Boreal soils appeared less sensitive to land use than other European regions, but management intensity appeared as a key factor for protist communities. Thus, management intensities should be taken into account depending on the land use. Management practices that maintain soil moisture, organic matter, and nutrient balance could help support resilient soil protist communities under changing climatic conditions.
Objectives:
Soil protists regulate microbial communities through predation, consequently releasing nutrients, and supporting important ecosystem functions such as nutrient cycling and plant growth. Their diversity is influenced by factors such as climate, soil properties, and land use. However, how land use land use and its intensity affect soil protist diversity and its functional composition, remains unknown. In this study, we investigated protist diversity and the main factors shaping their communities in the Boreal biogeographic region of Europe, across five land use types, each including low, medium and high management intensity.
Results:
Boreal soils showed intermediate protist diversity, lower than Mediterranean soils (35% less) but higher than Alpine soils (50% more). Protist diversity was relatively similar across different Boreal land uses. Agricultural, forest, mining, semi-natural, and wetland sites displayed only small differences in diversity, especially compared with the stronger land-use effects observed in other European regions. However, management intensity influenced diversity in forests and wetlands, increasing diversity in forests but decreasing it in wetlands.
Functional analyses showed that Boreal protist communities were dominated by insect parasites and microbiome predators, followed by phototrophic groups, indicating relatively high functional diversity. Community diversity and composition were mainly driven by soil electrical conductivity, moisture, pH, cation exchange capacity, and organic carbon and nitrogen content.
Recommendations:
Boreal soils appeared less sensitive to land use than other European regions, but management intensity appeared as a key factor for protist communities. Thus, management intensities should be taken into account depending on the land use. Management practices that maintain soil moisture, organic matter, and nutrient balance could help support resilient soil protist communities under changing climatic conditions.
Objectives:
Soil protists regulate microbial communities through predation, consequently releasing nutrients, and supporting important ecosystem functions such as nutrient cycling and plant growth. Their diversity is influenced by factors such as climate, soil properties, and land use. However, how land use land use and its intensity affect soil protist diversity and its functional composition, remains unknown. In this study, we investigated protist diversity and the main factors shaping their communities in the Atlantic biogeographic region of Europe across five different land use types, each including low, medium and high management intensity.
Results:
Atlantic soils showed intermediate levels of protist diversity compared with the other climatic regions. They were around 35% less diverse than Mediterranean soils, the most diverse systems in this study. Urban, agricultural, mining, and wetland soils generally supported higher diversity, while semi-natural areas showed nearly half the diversity observed in the other land uses. Management intensity did not significantly affect protist diversity, either alone or in interaction with land use.
Functional composition also varied across Atlantic land uses. Although parasitic protists remained dominant, predator and phototrophic groups were more abundant than in Alpine and Continental regions, suggesting more complex soil communities. Key environmental drivers linked to diversity across Atlantic soils included soil bulk density, soil pH, field water-holding capacity, the amount of rock fragments and gravels, and fungal abundance.
Recommendations:
Maintaining soil structure and balanced moisture conditions may help preserve diverse soil communities in Atlantic regions. Sustainable management practices that reduce soil degradation and support fungal diversity could contribute to more resilient and biologically active soils.
Objectives:
Soil protists regulate microbial communities through predation, consequently releasing nutrients, and supporting important ecosystem functions such as nutrient cycling and plant growth. Their diversity is influenced by factors such as climate, soil properties, and land use. However, how land use land use and its intensity affect soil protist diversity and its functional composition, remains unknown. In this study, we investigated protist diversity and the main factors shaping their communities in the Atlantic biogeographic region of Europe across five different land use types, each including low, medium and high management intensity.
Results:
Atlantic soils showed intermediate levels of protist diversity compared with the other climatic regions. They were around 35% less diverse than Mediterranean soils, the most diverse systems in this study. Urban, agricultural, mining, and wetland soils generally supported higher diversity, while semi-natural areas showed nearly half the diversity observed in the other land uses. Management intensity did not significantly affect protist diversity, either alone or in interaction with land use.
Functional composition also varied across Atlantic land uses. Although parasitic protists remained dominant, predator and phototrophic groups were more abundant than in Alpine and Continental regions, suggesting more complex soil communities. Key environmental drivers linked to diversity across Atlantic soils included soil bulk density, soil pH, field water-holding capacity, the amount of rock fragments and gravels, and fungal abundance.
Recommendations:
Maintaining soil structure and balanced moisture conditions may help preserve diverse soil communities in Atlantic regions. Sustainable management practices that reduce soil degradation and support fungal diversity could contribute to more resilient and biologically active soils.
Objectives
Soil protists regulate microbial communities through predation, consequently releasing nutrients, and supporting important ecosystem functions such as nutrient cycling and plant growth. However, how land use land use and its intensity affect soil protist diversity and its functional composition, remains unknown. In this study, we investigated protist diversity and the main factors shaping their communities across the Alpine biogeographic European region, covering five land use types, each including low, medium and high management intensity.
Results:
Alpine soils showed the lowest microbial diversity among European biogeographic regions, with about half the diversity of Mediterranean soils. Land use strongly influenced protist diversity, with agricultural and industrial soils supporting the highest diversity, while forests and semi-natural soils had the lowest. Management intensity alone had no overall effect, but its impact depended on land use: lower intensity increased diversity in forests, industrial, and wetlands soils, whereas higher intensity promoted diversity in agricultural soils.
Functional analyses showed that Alpine soils were strongly dominated by parasitic protists, mostly insect parasites, with relatively low proportions of predators and phototrophic groups. This pattern suggests relatively natural ecosystems with a high diversity of host organisms.
In addition to land use, protist diversity in Alpine soils was shaped by several soil characteristics. The most important factors included soil compaction, calcium availability, organic carbon content, soil water retention, pH, and the availability of lead and zinc.
Practical implications/Recommendations:
Alpine soils appear particularly sensitive to land-use change and intensive management. Practices that reduce soil compaction, maintain soil moisture, and preserve organic matter could help protect protist diversity in environments that are already vulnerable to climate and land-use pressures.
Objectives
Soil protists regulate microbial communities through predation, consequently releasing nutrients, and supporting important ecosystem functions such as nutrient cycling and plant growth. However, how land use land use and its intensity affect soil protist diversity and its functional composition, remains unknown. In this study, we investigated protist diversity and the main factors shaping their communities across the Alpine biogeographic European region, covering five land use types, each including low, medium and high management intensity.
Results:
Alpine soils showed the lowest microbial diversity among European biogeographic regions, with about half the diversity of Mediterranean soils. Land use strongly influenced protist diversity, with agricultural and industrial soils supporting the highest diversity, while forests and semi-natural soils had the lowest. Management intensity alone had no overall effect, but its impact depended on land use: lower intensity increased diversity in forests, industrial, and wetlands soils, whereas higher intensity promoted diversity in agricultural soils.
Functional analyses showed that Alpine soils were strongly dominated by parasitic protists, mostly insect parasites, with relatively low proportions of predators and phototrophic groups. This pattern suggests relatively natural ecosystems with a high diversity of host organisms.
In addition to land use, protist diversity in Alpine soils was shaped by several soil characteristics. The most important factors included soil compaction, calcium availability, organic carbon content, soil water retention, pH, and the availability of lead and zinc.
Practical implications/Recommendations:
Alpine soils appear particularly sensitive to land-use change and intensive management. Practices that reduce soil compaction, maintain soil moisture, and preserve organic matter could help protect protist diversity in environments that are already vulnerable to climate and land-use pressures.
Objectives
Soil protists regulate microbial communities through predation, consequently releasing nutrients, and supporting important ecosystem functions such as nutrient cycling and plant growth. Their diversity is influenced by factors such as climate, soil properties, and land use. However, research on soil protists is still at an early stage. In this study, we investigated protist diversity and the main factors shaping their communities across five European climatic regions, covering different land uses and management intensities.
Results:
Across Europe, soil protist diversity and community composition were strongly influenced by biogeographic region and land use. Mediterranean soils showed the highest diversity, while Alpine soils had the lowest. Agricultural soils supported the greatest diversity, whereas forests, wetlands, and semi-natural areas had the lowest. Land-use intensity alone had no significant effect on protist diversity. Soil pH was the main driver of protist diversity, together with total nitrogen, calcium, boron, and trace metal availability.
Functional groups also differed across regions and land uses. Parasitic protists dominated most soils, but Mediterranean and industrial soils showed lower proportions of parasites and higher proportions of predators and phototrophic groups. The majority of these parasitic protists infect insects. In contrast, agricultural soils showed a higher proportion of plant-parasitic protists, dominated by members of the genus Pythium.
Practical Implications / Recommendations:
These findings show that maintaining diverse land uses can support richer soil communities across Europe. Additionally, region appeared to be the most important factor explaining protist diversity, meaning that large-scale factors are predominant even when dealing with microbial diversity.
Objectives
Soil protists regulate microbial communities through predation, consequently releasing nutrients, and supporting important ecosystem functions such as nutrient cycling and plant growth. Their diversity is influenced by factors such as climate, soil properties, and land use. However, research on soil protists is still at an early stage. In this study, we investigated protist diversity and the main factors shaping their communities across five European climatic regions, covering different land uses and management intensities.
Results:
Across Europe, soil protist diversity and community composition were strongly influenced by biogeographic region and land use. Mediterranean soils showed the highest diversity, while Alpine soils had the lowest. Agricultural soils supported the greatest diversity, whereas forests, wetlands, and semi-natural areas had the lowest. Land-use intensity alone had no significant effect on protist diversity. Soil pH was the main driver of protist diversity, together with total nitrogen, calcium, boron, and trace metal availability.
Functional groups also differed across regions and land uses. Parasitic protists dominated most soils, but Mediterranean and industrial soils showed lower proportions of parasites and higher proportions of predators and phototrophic groups. The majority of these parasitic protists infect insects. In contrast, agricultural soils showed a higher proportion of plant-parasitic protists, dominated by members of the genus Pythium.
Practical Implications / Recommendations:
These findings show that maintaining diverse land uses can support richer soil communities across Europe. Additionally, region appeared to be the most important factor explaining protist diversity, meaning that large-scale factors are predominant even when dealing with microbial diversity.
Objectives
Mediterranean soils are often exposed to heat and drought, but they still host active fungal communities that play an important role in soil health. Fungi help break down organic matter, support plant growth, and contribute to soil stability. For farmers, land managers and planners, understanding how these organisms respond to land use and management is key to maintaining resilient soils under changing conditions. In this study, we analysed fungal communities across different land uses, including agricultural land, industrial and mining areas, semi-natural systems and urban soils, under three levels of management intensity, from low to high disturbance.
Results
Land use is the main factor shaping fungal communities. Each type of land supports a different fungal composition, meaning soils function differently depending on how they are used. Management intensity also plays an important role, especially in more sensitive systems. In mining and semi-natural soils, higher intensity is linked to clear reductions in diversity, suggesting strong disturbance effects, with communities becoming less balanced as intensity increases. In contrast, agricultural soils appear more stable, with smaller changes across management levels. Urban and industrial soils show variable responses, indicating that local conditions and management practices influence outcomes. Fungal composition also differs across land uses, with certain groups dominating in specific environments, reflecting adaptation to dry and variable conditions.
Recommendations
Fungal communities in Mediterranean soils do not respond equally to management. Reducing management intensity in sensitive systems, such as mining and semi-natural areas, can help maintain soil functioning. Adapting practices to each land use can improve soil health, support ecosystem services and contribute to more sustainable and resilient Mediterranean landscapes.
Objectives
Mediterranean soils are often exposed to heat and drought, but they still host active fungal communities that play an important role in soil health. Fungi help break down organic matter, support plant growth, and contribute to soil stability. For farmers, land managers and planners, understanding how these organisms respond to land use and management is key to maintaining resilient soils under changing conditions. In this study, we analysed fungal communities across different land uses, including agricultural land, industrial and mining areas, semi-natural systems and urban soils, under three levels of management intensity, from low to high disturbance.
Results
Land use is the main factor shaping fungal communities. Each type of land supports a different fungal composition, meaning soils function differently depending on how they are used. Management intensity also plays an important role, especially in more sensitive systems. In mining and semi-natural soils, higher intensity is linked to clear reductions in diversity, suggesting strong disturbance effects, with communities becoming less balanced as intensity increases. In contrast, agricultural soils appear more stable, with smaller changes across management levels. Urban and industrial soils show variable responses, indicating that local conditions and management practices influence outcomes. Fungal composition also differs across land uses, with certain groups dominating in specific environments, reflecting adaptation to dry and variable conditions.
Recommendations
Fungal communities in Mediterranean soils do not respond equally to management. Reducing management intensity in sensitive systems, such as mining and semi-natural areas, can help maintain soil functioning. Adapting practices to each land use can improve soil health, support ecosystem services and contribute to more sustainable and resilient Mediterranean landscapes.
Objectives
Fungi are an essential part of soil ecosystems. They help plants access nutrients, break down organic matter and contribute to soil structure. For farmers and land managers, understanding how these communities respond to land use and management is key to maintaining productive and healthy soils. In this study, we analysed fungal communities across different land uses, including agricultural, forests, mining areas, semi-natural and urban soils, under three levels of management intensity, from low to high disturbance.
Results
Land use is the main factor shaping fungal communities. Each type of land supports a distinct fungal composition, meaning soils behave differently depending on how they are used. Clear differences between land uses can be observed in community structure. Management intensity also plays a role, although its effect varies across systems. In forest and mining soils, higher intensity is linked to noticeable changes in fungal communities and a reduction in diversity, suggesting these systems are more sensitive to disturbance. In contrast, agricultural soils appear relatively stable, with smaller differences across management levels. Semi-natural and urban soils show more variability, indicating that local conditions and management decisions can strongly influence outcomes.
Recommendations
Fungal communities in continental soils do not respond in the same way to management. Reducing management intensity in more sensitive systems, such as forest and mining soils, can help maintain soil functioning. Adapting practices to the specific land use can improve soil health, support ecosystem services, and contribute to more sustainable and resilient landscapes.
Objectives
Fungi are an essential part of soil ecosystems. They help plants access nutrients, break down organic matter and contribute to soil structure. For farmers and land managers, understanding how these communities respond to land use and management is key to maintaining productive and healthy soils. In this study, we analysed fungal communities across different land uses, including agricultural, forests, mining areas, semi-natural and urban soils, under three levels of management intensity, from low to high disturbance.
Results
Land use is the main factor shaping fungal communities. Each type of land supports a distinct fungal composition, meaning soils behave differently depending on how they are used. Clear differences between land uses can be observed in community structure. Management intensity also plays a role, although its effect varies across systems. In forest and mining soils, higher intensity is linked to noticeable changes in fungal communities and a reduction in diversity, suggesting these systems are more sensitive to disturbance. In contrast, agricultural soils appear relatively stable, with smaller differences across management levels. Semi-natural and urban soils show more variability, indicating that local conditions and management decisions can strongly influence outcomes.
Recommendations
Fungal communities in continental soils do not respond in the same way to management. Reducing management intensity in more sensitive systems, such as forest and mining soils, can help maintain soil functioning. Adapting practices to the specific land use can improve soil health, support ecosystem services, and contribute to more sustainable and resilient landscapes.
Objectives
Fungi are a key part of boreal soils, helping to recycle nutrients, support plant growth, and maintain soil structure in environments that are often cold and nutrient-limited. For farmers and land managers, understanding how these communities respond to land use and management is essential for maintaining healthy and functioning soils. In this study, we analysed fungal communities across different land uses, including agricultural land, forests, mining areas, semi-natural systems and wetlands, under three levels of management intensity, from low to high disturbance.
Results
Land use strongly influences fungal communities. Clear differences between land uses can be observed, with each system supporting its own fungal composition. This means that soils function differently depending on how they are used, and management approaches should be adapted accordingly. Management intensity also plays a role, particularly in more sensitive systems. In forest, mining and semi-natural soils, higher intensity is associated with noticeable changes in fungal communities and lower diversity, indicating a loss of balance. In contrast, agricultural soils appear more stable, with smaller differences across management levels. Wetlands show some variability, suggesting that local conditions and management decisions can influence how fungal communities respond.
Recommendations
Fungal communities in boreal soils do not respond equally to management. Reducing management intensity in sensitive systems, such as forests, mining, and semi-natural areas, can help maintain soil functioning over time. Adapting practices to each land use can improve soil health, support ecosystem services and contribute to more sustainable and resilient boreal landscapes.
Objectives
Fungi are a key part of boreal soils, helping to recycle nutrients, support plant growth, and maintain soil structure in environments that are often cold and nutrient-limited. For farmers and land managers, understanding how these communities respond to land use and management is essential for maintaining healthy and functioning soils. In this study, we analysed fungal communities across different land uses, including agricultural land, forests, mining areas, semi-natural systems and wetlands, under three levels of management intensity, from low to high disturbance.
Results
Land use strongly influences fungal communities. Clear differences between land uses can be observed, with each system supporting its own fungal composition. This means that soils function differently depending on how they are used, and management approaches should be adapted accordingly. Management intensity also plays a role, particularly in more sensitive systems. In forest, mining and semi-natural soils, higher intensity is associated with noticeable changes in fungal communities and lower diversity, indicating a loss of balance. In contrast, agricultural soils appear more stable, with smaller differences across management levels. Wetlands show some variability, suggesting that local conditions and management decisions can influence how fungal communities respond.
Recommendations
Fungal communities in boreal soils do not respond equally to management. Reducing management intensity in sensitive systems, such as forests, mining, and semi-natural areas, can help maintain soil functioning over time. Adapting practices to each land use can improve soil health, support ecosystem services and contribute to more sustainable and resilient boreal landscapes.
Objectives
Soils in Atlantic regions host complex fungal communities that are essential for plant growth, organic matter decomposition, and nutrient cycling. These organisms form networks that help maintain soil structure and productivity. For farmers and land managers, understanding how land use and management affect these communities is key to sustaining healthy soils. In this study, we analysed fungal communities across different land uses, including agricultural land, mining areas, semi-natural systems, urban soils and wetlands, under three levels of management intensity, from low to high disturbance.
Results
Land use is the main factor shaping fungal communities. Each land type supports a distinct fungal composition, meaning soils function differently depending on how they are used. Management intensity also plays a role, although its effect depends on the ecosystem. In mining and semi-natural soils, higher intensity is linked to clear reductions in diversity and more uneven communities, suggesting that these systems can be strongly affected by management. In contrast, agricultural soils appear more consistent, with smaller differences across intensities. Urban and wetland soils show moderate variability, suggesting that local conditions and management decisions can influence outcomes. Fungal composition varies across land uses, with certain groups dominating in specific environments, reflecting how fungi adapt to local conditions.
Recommendations
Fungal communities in Atlantic soils respond differently depending on land use and management. Reducing management intensity in sensitive systems, such as semi-natural and mining areas, can help maintain soil functioning. Adapting practices to each land use can improve soil health, support ecosystem services and contribute to more sustainable and resilient Atlantic landscapes.
Objectives
Soils in Atlantic regions host complex fungal communities that are essential for plant growth, organic matter decomposition, and nutrient cycling. These organisms form networks that help maintain soil structure and productivity. For farmers and land managers, understanding how land use and management affect these communities is key to sustaining healthy soils. In this study, we analysed fungal communities across different land uses, including agricultural land, mining areas, semi-natural systems, urban soils and wetlands, under three levels of management intensity, from low to high disturbance.
Results
Land use is the main factor shaping fungal communities. Each land type supports a distinct fungal composition, meaning soils function differently depending on how they are used. Management intensity also plays a role, although its effect depends on the ecosystem. In mining and semi-natural soils, higher intensity is linked to clear reductions in diversity and more uneven communities, suggesting that these systems can be strongly affected by management. In contrast, agricultural soils appear more consistent, with smaller differences across intensities. Urban and wetland soils show moderate variability, suggesting that local conditions and management decisions can influence outcomes. Fungal composition varies across land uses, with certain groups dominating in specific environments, reflecting how fungi adapt to local conditions.
Recommendations
Fungal communities in Atlantic soils respond differently depending on land use and management. Reducing management intensity in sensitive systems, such as semi-natural and mining areas, can help maintain soil functioning. Adapting practices to each land use can improve soil health, support ecosystem services and contribute to more sustainable and resilient Atlantic landscapes.
Objectives
Fungi are a vital but often overlooked part of soil life. They help plants take up nutrients, break down organic matter, and contribute to soil structure. For farmers, foresters and land managers, understanding how land use and management affect these organisms is important for maintaining healthy and productive soils. In this study, we analysed fungal communities across different land uses, including agricultural land, forests, industrial areas, semi-natural systems, and wetlands, under three levels of management intensity, from low to high disturbance.
Results
Our results show that land use strongly shapes fungal communities. Each system supports a different fungal composition, meaning soils function differently depending on how they are used. Clear differences between land uses can be observed in community composition.
Management intensity also influences fungal communities, although the effect is not the same everywhere. In forest and industrial soils, higher intensity is linked to strong changes and lower diversity, suggesting these systems are particularly sensitive. In contrast, agricultural soils appear more consistent across management levels, while semi-natural and wetland systems show moderate variability depending on local conditions. Fungal composition also differs clearly between land uses, with some groups dominating in specific environments, reflecting how fungi adapt to soil conditions.
Recommendations
The main takeaway is straightforward: fungal communities respond differently depending on the type of land and its management. Reducing management intensity in sensitive systems, such as industrial and forest soils, can help maintain soil functioning. Adapting management practices to each land use can improve soil health, support plant production and contribute to more sustainable and resilient Alpine landscapes.
Objectives
Fungi are a vital but often overlooked part of soil life. They help plants take up nutrients, break down organic matter, and contribute to soil structure. For farmers, foresters and land managers, understanding how land use and management affect these organisms is important for maintaining healthy and productive soils. In this study, we analysed fungal communities across different land uses, including agricultural land, forests, industrial areas, semi-natural systems, and wetlands, under three levels of management intensity, from low to high disturbance.
Results
Our results show that land use strongly shapes fungal communities. Each system supports a different fungal composition, meaning soils function differently depending on how they are used. Clear differences between land uses can be observed in community composition.
Management intensity also influences fungal communities, although the effect is not the same everywhere. In forest and industrial soils, higher intensity is linked to strong changes and lower diversity, suggesting these systems are particularly sensitive. In contrast, agricultural soils appear more consistent across management levels, while semi-natural and wetland systems show moderate variability depending on local conditions. Fungal composition also differs clearly between land uses, with some groups dominating in specific environments, reflecting how fungi adapt to soil conditions.
Recommendations
The main takeaway is straightforward: fungal communities respond differently depending on the type of land and its management. Reducing management intensity in sensitive systems, such as industrial and forest soils, can help maintain soil functioning. Adapting management practices to each land use can improve soil health, support plant production and contribute to more sustainable and resilient Alpine landscapes.
Objectives
Soil fungi are essential for healthy ecosystems: they help plants grow, recycle nutrients and improve soil structure. However, how these fungal communities respond to land use and management across Europe is still not fully understood. In this study, we analysed fungal communities in 725 soils from seven land uses (agricultural, forest, industrial, mining, semi-natural, urban and wetland) across five European regions (Alpine, Atlantic, Boreal, Continental and Mediterranean). We also compared different levels of management intensity, from low to high intensity.
Results
Both biogeographic regoin and land use strongly shape soil fungi. Fungal communities differ clearly between regions, meaning that climate and local conditions play a major role. At the same time, land use also matters: for example, wetlands and semi-natural areas tend to host richer and more distinct fungal communities, while intensively managed or disturbed soils often show reduced diversity.
Management intensity has an additional effect. In several land uses, increasing intensity changes not only fungal richness or diversity, but also which fungal species dominate. This can affect key functions such as nutrient cycling or plant–fungus interactions. Some fungal families are consistently found across Europe, but their abundance varies depending on both land use and regional conditions.
Recommendations
These findings highlight that there is no “one-size-fits-all” strategy for soil management. Practices that work in one region may not have the same effect elsewhere. For farmers, foresters and land managers, this means that adapting management to local conditions is key to maintaining beneficial fungi. Lower disturbance and more diverse land use can help support richer fungal communities, which in turn can improve soil fertility, resilience, and long-term productivity.
Objectives
Soil fungi are essential for healthy ecosystems: they help plants grow, recycle nutrients and improve soil structure. However, how these fungal communities respond to land use and management across Europe is still not fully understood. In this study, we analysed fungal communities in 725 soils from seven land uses (agricultural, forest, industrial, mining, semi-natural, urban and wetland) across five European regions (Alpine, Atlantic, Boreal, Continental and Mediterranean). We also compared different levels of management intensity, from low to high intensity.
Results
Both biogeographic regoin and land use strongly shape soil fungi. Fungal communities differ clearly between regions, meaning that climate and local conditions play a major role. At the same time, land use also matters: for example, wetlands and semi-natural areas tend to host richer and more distinct fungal communities, while intensively managed or disturbed soils often show reduced diversity.
Management intensity has an additional effect. In several land uses, increasing intensity changes not only fungal richness or diversity, but also which fungal species dominate. This can affect key functions such as nutrient cycling or plant–fungus interactions. Some fungal families are consistently found across Europe, but their abundance varies depending on both land use and regional conditions.
Recommendations
These findings highlight that there is no “one-size-fits-all” strategy for soil management. Practices that work in one region may not have the same effect elsewhere. For farmers, foresters and land managers, this means that adapting management to local conditions is key to maintaining beneficial fungi. Lower disturbance and more diverse land use can help support richer fungal communities, which in turn can improve soil fertility, resilience, and long-term productivity.
Objectives
Traditional soil DNA sequencing captures both living cells and “relic DNA” from dead microorganisms, leading to overestimation of microbial diversity and misinterpretation of ecosystem functions. This obscures the actual contribution of active microbes (alive) to soil processes. In this context, propidium monoazide (PMA)—a dye that prevents amplification of DNA from dead cells—was applied; we investigated its potential in Mediterranean soils (Spain), across semi-natural sites subjected to high, medium and low management intensity, and to different climate scenarios. Soil samples were collected in 2024 (baseline), and in 2025 (first year of the climate change experiment, with two different scenarios: current conditions and simulated climate change with higher temperature and decreased precipitation).
Results
In 2024, the percentage of the living bacteria relative to the total bacterial community was around 40%, resulting this fraction higher in intensively managed soils. In 2025, the percentage of living bacteria was a bit higher (50%) and no significant differences in bacteria viability were observed across land use intensities and climatic scenarios. Soil properties in this biogeographic region influenced the fraction of living bacterial species, but not the overall community diversity. In both years, the living and total bacterial communities showed similar responses to environmental variables (management intensity and climatic pressure). Predictions of the potential bacterial community functions revealed that the functions abundances were similar between the living and total communities.
Recommendations
Accounting for living bacterial abundances enables for a finer characterization of the bacterial community, evidencing differences in richness between living and total bacterial communities. Thus, this approach allows for a more accurate investigation of the soil microbiome.
Objectives
Traditional soil DNA sequencing captures both living cells and “relic DNA” from dead microorganisms, leading to overestimation of microbial diversity and misinterpretation of ecosystem functions. This obscures the actual contribution of active microbes (alive) to soil processes. In this context, propidium monoazide (PMA)—a dye that prevents amplification of DNA from dead cells—was applied; we investigated its potential in Mediterranean soils (Spain), across semi-natural sites subjected to high, medium and low management intensity, and to different climate scenarios. Soil samples were collected in 2024 (baseline), and in 2025 (first year of the climate change experiment, with two different scenarios: current conditions and simulated climate change with higher temperature and decreased precipitation).
Results
In 2024, the percentage of the living bacteria relative to the total bacterial community was around 40%, resulting this fraction higher in intensively managed soils. In 2025, the percentage of living bacteria was a bit higher (50%) and no significant differences in bacteria viability were observed across land use intensities and climatic scenarios. Soil properties in this biogeographic region influenced the fraction of living bacterial species, but not the overall community diversity. In both years, the living and total bacterial communities showed similar responses to environmental variables (management intensity and climatic pressure). Predictions of the potential bacterial community functions revealed that the functions abundances were similar between the living and total communities.
Recommendations
Accounting for living bacterial abundances enables for a finer characterization of the bacterial community, evidencing differences in richness between living and total bacterial communities. Thus, this approach allows for a more accurate investigation of the soil microbiome.
Objectives
Traditional soil DNA sequencing captures both living cells and “relic DNA” from dead microorganisms, leading to overestimation of microbial diversity and misinterpretation of ecosystem functions. This obscures the actual contribution of active microbes to soil processes. In this context, propidium monoazide (PMA)—a dye that prevents amplification of DNA from dead cells—was applied; we investigated its potential in Boreal soils (Latvia), across semi-natural sites subjected to high, medium and low management intensity, and to a climate change scenario. Soil samples were collected in 2024 (baseline), and in 2025 (first year of the climate change experiment, with current climatic conditions and simulated climate change scenario, with higher temperature and decreased precipitation).
Results
In 2024, viable bacteria accounted for ~60% of the total bacterial community, decreasing to ~26% in 2025, indicating a strong sampling-year effect on bacterial viability. No significant differences in viability were detected across land-use intensities or climate scenarios within each year. Living and total bacterial communities responded similarly to environmental factors: management intensity in 2024, and both management intensity and climate scenarios in 2025. This observation suggested that the living and total bacterial communities were highly similar. Predictions of the potential bacterial community functions revealed that, in both sampling years, the living bacterial community exhibited lower abundances of nitrogen cycle-related functions compared to the total community, suggesting that analyses based solely on total DNA may overestimate these functional potentials.
Recommendations
The quantification of living bacteria enables for a finer characterization of the bacterial community and, especially, its potential functions, providing a more accurate evaluation of how different soil management practices influence bacterial functional potential over time.
Objectives
Traditional soil DNA sequencing captures both living cells and “relic DNA” from dead microorganisms, leading to overestimation of microbial diversity and misinterpretation of ecosystem functions. This obscures the actual contribution of active microbes to soil processes. In this context, propidium monoazide (PMA)—a dye that prevents amplification of DNA from dead cells—was applied; we investigated its potential in Boreal soils (Latvia), across semi-natural sites subjected to high, medium and low management intensity, and to a climate change scenario. Soil samples were collected in 2024 (baseline), and in 2025 (first year of the climate change experiment, with current climatic conditions and simulated climate change scenario, with higher temperature and decreased precipitation).
Results
In 2024, viable bacteria accounted for ~60% of the total bacterial community, decreasing to ~26% in 2025, indicating a strong sampling-year effect on bacterial viability. No significant differences in viability were detected across land-use intensities or climate scenarios within each year. Living and total bacterial communities responded similarly to environmental factors: management intensity in 2024, and both management intensity and climate scenarios in 2025. This observation suggested that the living and total bacterial communities were highly similar. Predictions of the potential bacterial community functions revealed that, in both sampling years, the living bacterial community exhibited lower abundances of nitrogen cycle-related functions compared to the total community, suggesting that analyses based solely on total DNA may overestimate these functional potentials.
Recommendations
The quantification of living bacteria enables for a finer characterization of the bacterial community and, especially, its potential functions, providing a more accurate evaluation of how different soil management practices influence bacterial functional potential over time.
Objectives
Traditional soil DNA sequencing captures both living cells and “relic DNA” from dead microorganisms, leading to overestimation of microbial diversity and misinterpretation of ecosystem functions. This obscures the actual contribution of active microbes (alive) to soil processes. In this context, propidium monoazide (PMA)—a dye that prevents amplification of DNA from dead cells—was applied; we investigated its potential in Atlantic soils (Spain), across semi-natural sites subjected to high, medium and low management intensity, and to a climate change scenario. Soil samples were collected in 2024 (baseline), and in 2025 (first year of the climate change experiment, both with current climate and simulating an expected climate change scenario, with higher temperature and decreased precipitation).
Results
In both years, the percentage of the living bacteria relative to the total bacterial community was high, ranging between 70-75%. No significant differences in bacteria viability were observed across land use intensities and climatic scenarios. In both years, the viable and total bacterial communities showed similar responses to environmental variables: management intensity in 2024, and both management intensity and climatic scenarios in 2025. Predictions of the potential bacterial community functions revealed that, in both sampling years, the viable bacterial community exhibited significantly lower abundances of nitrogen cycle-related functions compared to the total community, suggesting that analyses based solely on total DNA may overestimate these functional potentials.
Recommedations
Estimating living bacteria enables for a finer characterization of the bacterial community and its potential functions, providing a more accurate evaluation of how different soil management practices influence bacterial functional potential over time.
Objectives
Traditional soil DNA sequencing captures both living cells and “relic DNA” from dead microorganisms, leading to overestimation of microbial diversity and misinterpretation of ecosystem functions. This obscures the actual contribution of active microbes (alive) to soil processes. In this context, propidium monoazide (PMA)—a dye that prevents amplification of DNA from dead cells—was applied; we investigated its potential in Atlantic soils (Spain), across semi-natural sites subjected to high, medium and low management intensity, and to a climate change scenario. Soil samples were collected in 2024 (baseline), and in 2025 (first year of the climate change experiment, both with current climate and simulating an expected climate change scenario, with higher temperature and decreased precipitation).
Results
In both years, the percentage of the living bacteria relative to the total bacterial community was high, ranging between 70-75%. No significant differences in bacteria viability were observed across land use intensities and climatic scenarios. In both years, the viable and total bacterial communities showed similar responses to environmental variables: management intensity in 2024, and both management intensity and climatic scenarios in 2025. Predictions of the potential bacterial community functions revealed that, in both sampling years, the viable bacterial community exhibited significantly lower abundances of nitrogen cycle-related functions compared to the total community, suggesting that analyses based solely on total DNA may overestimate these functional potentials.
Recommedations
Estimating living bacteria enables for a finer characterization of the bacterial community and its potential functions, providing a more accurate evaluation of how different soil management practices influence bacterial functional potential over time.
Objectives
Traditional soil DNA sequencing captures both living cells and “relic DNA” from dead microorganisms, leading to overestimation of microbial diversity and misinterpretation of ecosystem functions. This obscures the actual contribution of active microbes (alive) to soil processes. In this context, propidium monoazide (PMA)—a dye that prevents amplification of DNA from dead cells—was applied; we investigated its potential in Alpine soils (Switzerland), across semi-natural sites subjected to high, medium and low management intensity, and to different climatic pressures. Soil samples were collected in 2024.
Results
The average proportion of the viable bacteria (alive) relative to the total bacterial community was 53%, although variability was high. No significant differences in bacterial viability were detected across land use intensities. Correlations between diversity indices of the viable and total bacterial communities were low and non-significant. The viable bacterial community also showed a slightly stronger and more significant response to the different soil management intensity compared to the total bacterial community. However, no significant differences were observed in the predicted functional profiles between the viable and total bacterial communities.
Recommendations
In Alpine soils, PMA treatment may be essential for distinguishing the viable living bacterial community from the total community, enabling a more reliable characterization of soil bacterial diversity and the effects of different management practices.
Objectives
Traditional soil DNA sequencing captures both living cells and “relic DNA” from dead microorganisms, leading to overestimation of microbial diversity and misinterpretation of ecosystem functions. This obscures the actual contribution of active microbes (alive) to soil processes. In this context, propidium monoazide (PMA)—a dye that prevents amplification of DNA from dead cells—was applied; we investigated its potential in Alpine soils (Switzerland), across semi-natural sites subjected to high, medium and low management intensity, and to different climatic pressures. Soil samples were collected in 2024.
Results
The average proportion of the viable bacteria (alive) relative to the total bacterial community was 53%, although variability was high. No significant differences in bacterial viability were detected across land use intensities. Correlations between diversity indices of the viable and total bacterial communities were low and non-significant. The viable bacterial community also showed a slightly stronger and more significant response to the different soil management intensity compared to the total bacterial community. However, no significant differences were observed in the predicted functional profiles between the viable and total bacterial communities.
Recommendations
In Alpine soils, PMA treatment may be essential for distinguishing the viable living bacterial community from the total community, enabling a more reliable characterization of soil bacterial diversity and the effects of different management practices.
Objectives
Traditional soil DNA sequencing captures both living cells and “relic DNA” from dead microbes, leading to overestimation of microbial diversity and misinterpretation of ecosystem functions. This obscures the real contribution of active microorganisms to soil processes. BioservicES addresses the challenge by combining propidium monoazide (PMA)—a dye that blocks amplification of DNA from dead cells—with bacterial abundances quantification and taxonomic characterization across different biogeographic regions and land-use types. Understanding the viable (living) bacterial community is crucial for evaluating the functional impact of land use change, climate change and different soil management practices over time. Results showed that PMA treatment successfully removed relic DNA, enabling accurate detection of living bacteria and their functional genes.
Results
The proportion of living cells varies across soils, regions, and management intensities, revealing distinct ecological responses. Living communities show different diversity indices compared to total communities, demonstrating how relic DNA masks real biological signals. PMA, combined with full-length sequencing, captures a more accurate picture of the active bacterial community. Viable (living) vs. total functional profiles (e.g., N cycle genes) differ substantially, highlighting the importance of targeting the living fraction to understand ecosystem functioning.
Recommendations
For agronomists, soil laboratories, and land managers, PMA-based protocols provide a more realistic picture of soil health, focusing on the microorganisms that are truly active.
Objectives
Traditional soil DNA sequencing captures both living cells and “relic DNA” from dead microbes, leading to overestimation of microbial diversity and misinterpretation of ecosystem functions. This obscures the real contribution of active microorganisms to soil processes. BioservicES addresses the challenge by combining propidium monoazide (PMA)—a dye that blocks amplification of DNA from dead cells—with bacterial abundances quantification and taxonomic characterization across different biogeographic regions and land-use types. Understanding the viable (living) bacterial community is crucial for evaluating the functional impact of land use change, climate change and different soil management practices over time. Results showed that PMA treatment successfully removed relic DNA, enabling accurate detection of living bacteria and their functional genes.
Results
The proportion of living cells varies across soils, regions, and management intensities, revealing distinct ecological responses. Living communities show different diversity indices compared to total communities, demonstrating how relic DNA masks real biological signals. PMA, combined with full-length sequencing, captures a more accurate picture of the active bacterial community. Viable (living) vs. total functional profiles (e.g., N cycle genes) differ substantially, highlighting the importance of targeting the living fraction to understand ecosystem functioning.
Recommendations
For agronomists, soil laboratories, and land managers, PMA-based protocols provide a more realistic picture of soil health, focusing on the microorganisms that are truly active.
Objectives
Mediterranean soils are home to billions of bacteria that drive nutrient cycling, support plant growth, and help maintain soil functions under warm and dry conditions. For farmers, land managers and planners in this region, understanding how land use and management decisions affect this hidden community is essential for keeping soils productive and resilient. In this study, we analysed soils across different land uses, including agricultural land, mining areas, semi-natural landscapes, industrial sites, and urban soils, under three levels of management intensity, from low to high disturbance.
Results
Our findings show that land use had the strongest influence on soil bacteria. Each type of land use hosts very different bacterial communities, meaning that soil management should be adapted to local conditions rather than applying a single approach everywhere. However, management intensity still matters, particularly in industrial and mining sites. In mining areas, high intensity practices led to noticeable changes in the bacterial community, suggesting reduced stability. Industrial soils also showed sensitivity to increasing disturbance, with shifts in community composition at higher intensity levels. In contrast, agricultural soils appeared relatively stable across management intensities. Semi-natural and urban soils show moderate variability, indicating that local conditions and management choices can influence outcomes.
Recommendations
Overall, this study highlights a practical message:
soils respond differently depending on where they are and how they are managed. Reducing management intensity in sensitive systems, such as mining and industrial sites, can help preserve soil biodiversity and support ecosystem functioning. Adapting management practices to the specific land uses can improve soil health, support ecosystem services such as crop production and water regulation, and contribute to more sustainable and resilient landscapes.
Objectives
Mediterranean soils are home to billions of bacteria that drive nutrient cycling, support plant growth, and help maintain soil functions under warm and dry conditions. For farmers, land managers and planners in this region, understanding how land use and management decisions affect this hidden community is essential for keeping soils productive and resilient. In this study, we analysed soils across different land uses, including agricultural land, mining areas, semi-natural landscapes, industrial sites, and urban soils, under three levels of management intensity, from low to high disturbance.
Results
Our findings show that land use had the strongest influence on soil bacteria. Each type of land use hosts very different bacterial communities, meaning that soil management should be adapted to local conditions rather than applying a single approach everywhere. However, management intensity still matters, particularly in industrial and mining sites. In mining areas, high intensity practices led to noticeable changes in the bacterial community, suggesting reduced stability. Industrial soils also showed sensitivity to increasing disturbance, with shifts in community composition at higher intensity levels. In contrast, agricultural soils appeared relatively stable across management intensities. Semi-natural and urban soils show moderate variability, indicating that local conditions and management choices can influence outcomes.
Recommendations
Overall, this study highlights a practical message:
soils respond differently depending on where they are and how they are managed. Reducing management intensity in sensitive systems, such as mining and industrial sites, can help preserve soil biodiversity and support ecosystem functioning. Adapting management practices to the specific land uses can improve soil health, support ecosystem services such as crop production and water regulation, and contribute to more sustainable and resilient landscapes.
Objectives
Soils in continental regions are rich in bacterial life. These bacteria play a key role in maintaining soil fertility, supporting plant growth and regulating essential processes. For farmers, foresters and land managers, understanding how land use and management influence this hidden community is important for keeping soils productive and resilient. In this study, we analysed soils across different land uses, including agricultural land, forests, mining areas, semi-natural systems and urban soils, under three levels of management intensity, from low to high disturbance.
Results
Our results show that land use was the main factor shaping soil bacterial communities. Clear differences between land uses were observed, with each system hosting its own microbial profile. This means that soils behave differently depending on their use, and management strategies should be adapted accordingly. Management intensity still plays a role, though its effect varies across systems. In forest and mining soils, higher intensity was linked to noticeable changes in community structure, suggesting that these systems are sensitive to disturbance. In contrast, agricultural soils appeared relatively stable, with small differences across management levels. Semi-natural and urban soils showed more variability, suggesting that local conditions and management choices can strongly influence outcomes.
Recommendations
The key message is clear: soils in continental regions do not respond in the same way to management. Reducing management intensity in more sensitive systems, such as forest and mining soils, can help maintain more balanced soil communities. Adapting practices to the specific land use can improve soil health, support ecosystem services and contribute to more sustainable and resilient land management.
Objectives
Soils in continental regions are rich in bacterial life. These bacteria play a key role in maintaining soil fertility, supporting plant growth and regulating essential processes. For farmers, foresters and land managers, understanding how land use and management influence this hidden community is important for keeping soils productive and resilient. In this study, we analysed soils across different land uses, including agricultural land, forests, mining areas, semi-natural systems and urban soils, under three levels of management intensity, from low to high disturbance.
Results
Our results show that land use was the main factor shaping soil bacterial communities. Clear differences between land uses were observed, with each system hosting its own microbial profile. This means that soils behave differently depending on their use, and management strategies should be adapted accordingly. Management intensity still plays a role, though its effect varies across systems. In forest and mining soils, higher intensity was linked to noticeable changes in community structure, suggesting that these systems are sensitive to disturbance. In contrast, agricultural soils appeared relatively stable, with small differences across management levels. Semi-natural and urban soils showed more variability, suggesting that local conditions and management choices can strongly influence outcomes.
Recommendations
The key message is clear: soils in continental regions do not respond in the same way to management. Reducing management intensity in more sensitive systems, such as forest and mining soils, can help maintain more balanced soil communities. Adapting practices to the specific land use can improve soil health, support ecosystem services and contribute to more sustainable and resilient land management.
Objectives
Soils in boreal regions are full of life. Billions of bacteria support plant growth, regulate nutrient cycling, and help maintain soil functions under often harsh climatic conditions. For farmers, foresters, and land managers, understanding how land use and management decisions affect this hidden life is key to maintaining productive and resilient soils. In this study, we analysed soils across different land uses, such as agricultural, forest, mining, semi-natural areas, and wetlands, under three levels of management intensity, from low to high disturbance.
Results
Our results show that land use is the main factor shaping soil bacterial communities. Each land type hosts distinct bacterial communities, meaning soils behave differently depending on their use. This highlights that a single management strategy cannot be applied everywhere. Nonetheless, management intensity still plays an important role, especially in sensitive systems. In mining areas, intensive practices were linked to clear changes in soil communities, indicating reduced stability, while lower intensity helps maintain more balanced conditions. Wetlands also showed shifts under higher intensity, suggesting vulnerability to disturbance. Forests and agricultural soils appeared more stable, with smaller changes across management levels, while semi-natural systems showed some variability depending on local conditions.
Recommendations
The key message is simple: soils in boreal regions did not respond in the same way to management. Reducing management intensity in sensitive systems, such as mining areas and wetlands, could help maintain soil functioning over time. Adapting practices to the specific land use can improve soil health, support ecosystem services such as plant production and water regulation, and contribute to more sustainable and resilient boreal landscapes.
Objectives
Soils in boreal regions are full of life. Billions of bacteria support plant growth, regulate nutrient cycling, and help maintain soil functions under often harsh climatic conditions. For farmers, foresters, and land managers, understanding how land use and management decisions affect this hidden life is key to maintaining productive and resilient soils. In this study, we analysed soils across different land uses, such as agricultural, forest, mining, semi-natural areas, and wetlands, under three levels of management intensity, from low to high disturbance.
Results
Our results show that land use is the main factor shaping soil bacterial communities. Each land type hosts distinct bacterial communities, meaning soils behave differently depending on their use. This highlights that a single management strategy cannot be applied everywhere. Nonetheless, management intensity still plays an important role, especially in sensitive systems. In mining areas, intensive practices were linked to clear changes in soil communities, indicating reduced stability, while lower intensity helps maintain more balanced conditions. Wetlands also showed shifts under higher intensity, suggesting vulnerability to disturbance. Forests and agricultural soils appeared more stable, with smaller changes across management levels, while semi-natural systems showed some variability depending on local conditions.
Recommendations
The key message is simple: soils in boreal regions did not respond in the same way to management. Reducing management intensity in sensitive systems, such as mining areas and wetlands, could help maintain soil functioning over time. Adapting practices to the specific land use can improve soil health, support ecosystem services such as plant production and water regulation, and contribute to more sustainable and resilient boreal landscapes.
Objectives
Soil is alive with billions of bacteria that support plant growth, maintain fertility, and ensure key soil functions. For farmers and land managers, understanding how daily decisions affect this hidden life is essential to keeping productive and resilient soils, especially in Atlantic regions. In this study, we looked at soils across a range of land uses, including agriculture, mining areas, semi-natural landscapes, urban spaces, and wetlands, under three levels of management intensity, from low to high disturbance.
Results:
Our findings show that land use has the strongest influence on soil bacteria. Each type of land use hosts very different bacterial communities, meaning that soil management should be adapted to local conditions rather than applying a single approach everywhere. However, management intensity still matters, particularly in already disturbed environments. For example, in mining areas, intensive practices greatly reduced soil biodiversity, while reducing disturbance (medium or low intensity management) allowed microbial communities to recover, improving soil health over time. Wetlands also showed a decline in soil biodiversity under higher intensity use, suggesting they are similarly sensitive. In contrast, agricultural and semi-natural soils appeared more stable, with smaller changes across management levels. Urban soils varied more, indicating that local conditions and management choices can strongly influence outcomes.
Recommendations
Overall, this study highlights a practical message:
soils respond differently depending on where they are and how they are managed. Reducing management intensity in sensitive systems, such as mining sites and wetlands, can help protect and restore soil biodiversity. Adapting management practices to the specific land uses can improve soil health, support ecosystem services such as crop production and water regulation, and contribute to more sustainable and resilient landscapes.
Objectives
Soil is alive with billions of bacteria that support plant growth, maintain fertility, and ensure key soil functions. For farmers and land managers, understanding how daily decisions affect this hidden life is essential to keeping productive and resilient soils, especially in Atlantic regions. In this study, we looked at soils across a range of land uses, including agriculture, mining areas, semi-natural landscapes, urban spaces, and wetlands, under three levels of management intensity, from low to high disturbance.
Results:
Our findings show that land use has the strongest influence on soil bacteria. Each type of land use hosts very different bacterial communities, meaning that soil management should be adapted to local conditions rather than applying a single approach everywhere. However, management intensity still matters, particularly in already disturbed environments. For example, in mining areas, intensive practices greatly reduced soil biodiversity, while reducing disturbance (medium or low intensity management) allowed microbial communities to recover, improving soil health over time. Wetlands also showed a decline in soil biodiversity under higher intensity use, suggesting they are similarly sensitive. In contrast, agricultural and semi-natural soils appeared more stable, with smaller changes across management levels. Urban soils varied more, indicating that local conditions and management choices can strongly influence outcomes.
Recommendations
Overall, this study highlights a practical message:
soils respond differently depending on where they are and how they are managed. Reducing management intensity in sensitive systems, such as mining sites and wetlands, can help protect and restore soil biodiversity. Adapting management practices to the specific land uses can improve soil health, support ecosystem services such as crop production and water regulation, and contribute to more sustainable and resilient landscapes.
Objectives
Soil in Alpine landscapes is alive with billions of bacteria that help maintain fertility, support plant growth, and regulate essential processes like nutrient cycling. For farmers, foresters, land managers, and planners, understanding how land use decisions affect this hidden life is key to maintaining healthy and resilient ecosystems.
Results
In this study, we compared soils from different land uses, including agriculture, forests, semi-natural areas, wetlands, and industrial sites, under three levels of management intensity, from low to high disturbance.
Our findings show that land use has the strongest influence on soil bacterial communities. In other words, whether a soil is forest, wetland, or farmland has a stronger influence than how intensively it is managed. This means that there is no single best management strategy for all soils.
At the same time, management intensity still plays an important role, particularly in more sensitive environments. For example, in wetlands and semi-natural areas, high intensity practices led to a clear loss of soil biodiversity. In agricultural and industrial soils, the negative effects were smaller but still noticeable. In contrast, forest soils appeared more stable and less affected by changes in management intensity.
Recommendations
Overall, this study highlights a practical message:
soils in Alpine regions do not all respond the same way to management. Sensitive systems, such as wetlands, are especially vulnerable to intensive use, while others are more resilient. From a practical perspective, reducing management intensity, by limiting disturbance or adopting fewer intensive practices, can help protect soil biodiversity, particularly in fragile environments. Adapting management to the specific land use can improve soil health, support ecosystem services, and contribute to more sustainable and resilient Alpine landscapes.
Objectives
Soil in Alpine landscapes is alive with billions of bacteria that help maintain fertility, support plant growth, and regulate essential processes like nutrient cycling. For farmers, foresters, land managers, and planners, understanding how land use decisions affect this hidden life is key to maintaining healthy and resilient ecosystems.
Results
In this study, we compared soils from different land uses, including agriculture, forests, semi-natural areas, wetlands, and industrial sites, under three levels of management intensity, from low to high disturbance.
Our findings show that land use has the strongest influence on soil bacterial communities. In other words, whether a soil is forest, wetland, or farmland has a stronger influence than how intensively it is managed. This means that there is no single best management strategy for all soils.
At the same time, management intensity still plays an important role, particularly in more sensitive environments. For example, in wetlands and semi-natural areas, high intensity practices led to a clear loss of soil biodiversity. In agricultural and industrial soils, the negative effects were smaller but still noticeable. In contrast, forest soils appeared more stable and less affected by changes in management intensity.
Recommendations
Overall, this study highlights a practical message:
soils in Alpine regions do not all respond the same way to management. Sensitive systems, such as wetlands, are especially vulnerable to intensive use, while others are more resilient. From a practical perspective, reducing management intensity, by limiting disturbance or adopting fewer intensive practices, can help protect soil biodiversity, particularly in fragile environments. Adapting management to the specific land use can improve soil health, support ecosystem services, and contribute to more sustainable and resilient Alpine landscapes.
Objectives
Effects of three management intensities (high, medium, low) across seven land uses (agricultural, forest, industrial, mining, semi-natural, urban, wetland) on soil bacterial communities were studied in five European biogeographical regions (Alpine, Atlantic, Boreal, Continental, Mediterranean).
Results
Results show that where soils are located in Europe (specific soil and climate conditions) has the strongest influence on soil bacteria, while land use plays a significant but secondary role. Bacterial diversity varies clearly across biogeographic regions. Mediterranean soils showed the lowest variability between sites, possibly because dry and warm conditions limit the range of bacteria that can establish. The same land use does not produce the same bacterial community everywhere: a forest soil in the Boreal region hosted very different bacteria than a forest soil in the Mediterranean region. This means that management practices cannot simply be copied from one region to another.
Despite these regional differences, a group of 117 bacterial types was consistently found in the same land use types across all five regions. Agricultural soils shared the largest number of common bacteria, while forest soils showed the most consistent communities across Europe. Although these shared bacteria were present in different amounts depending on the region, indicating that land use shapes bacterial communities, local soil and climate conditions primarily determined how abundant they are.
Recommendations
These findings suggest that healthy soil management must consider local conditions. The same practice can have very different effects on soil life depending on where in Europe it is applied.
Objectives
Effects of three management intensities (high, medium, low) across seven land uses (agricultural, forest, industrial, mining, semi-natural, urban, wetland) on soil bacterial communities were studied in five European biogeographical regions (Alpine, Atlantic, Boreal, Continental, Mediterranean).
Results
Results show that where soils are located in Europe (specific soil and climate conditions) has the strongest influence on soil bacteria, while land use plays a significant but secondary role. Bacterial diversity varies clearly across biogeographic regions. Mediterranean soils showed the lowest variability between sites, possibly because dry and warm conditions limit the range of bacteria that can establish. The same land use does not produce the same bacterial community everywhere: a forest soil in the Boreal region hosted very different bacteria than a forest soil in the Mediterranean region. This means that management practices cannot simply be copied from one region to another.
Despite these regional differences, a group of 117 bacterial types was consistently found in the same land use types across all five regions. Agricultural soils shared the largest number of common bacteria, while forest soils showed the most consistent communities across Europe. Although these shared bacteria were present in different amounts depending on the region, indicating that land use shapes bacterial communities, local soil and climate conditions primarily determined how abundant they are.
Recommendations
These findings suggest that healthy soil management must consider local conditions. The same practice can have very different effects on soil life depending on where in Europe it is applied.
Objective(s)
Soil microbial biomass and community structure are key indicators of soil health and fertility, particularly under different pedoclimatic conditions and management systems. In this study, microbial communities were assessed in 150 soil samples from the pedoclimatic Mediterranean area (NE Spain) across five land-use types (Urban, Agricultural, Industrial, Mining and Semi-natural) and three management intensities (High, Medium, and Low). Phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis was used to estimate microbial biomass and the relative abundance of major microbial groups, such as fungi and bacteria.
Results
Total microbial biomass was very low, typical of dryland areas. However, a very positive response was observed under reduced management intensity. Agricultural soils showed a fourfold increase in biomass when transitioning from high to low intensity, with a strong fungal presence, as assessed by the fungi-to-bacteria ratio. Industrial and mining sites exhibited the lowest values, but they also improved under less intense management, indicating that the cessation of disturbance facilitates microbial colonisation. Interestingly, urban environments showed high initial biomass that declined at lower management levels, but with a higher proportion of fungi than bacteria. Semi-natural areas maintained a constant, moderate biomass, and the highest fungi-to-bacteria ratio under less intensive management.
Practical implications/Recommendations
Reducing anthropogenic intervention in the Mediterranean region is vital to alleviating combined environmental stress, thereby allowing the increase of microbial biomass.
Objective(s)
Soil microbial biomass and community structure are key indicators of soil health and fertility, particularly under different pedoclimatic conditions and management systems. In this study, microbial communities were assessed in 150 soil samples from the pedoclimatic Mediterranean area (NE Spain) across five land-use types (Urban, Agricultural, Industrial, Mining and Semi-natural) and three management intensities (High, Medium, and Low). Phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis was used to estimate microbial biomass and the relative abundance of major microbial groups, such as fungi and bacteria.
Results
Total microbial biomass was very low, typical of dryland areas. However, a very positive response was observed under reduced management intensity. Agricultural soils showed a fourfold increase in biomass when transitioning from high to low intensity, with a strong fungal presence, as assessed by the fungi-to-bacteria ratio. Industrial and mining sites exhibited the lowest values, but they also improved under less intense management, indicating that the cessation of disturbance facilitates microbial colonisation. Interestingly, urban environments showed high initial biomass that declined at lower management levels, but with a higher proportion of fungi than bacteria. Semi-natural areas maintained a constant, moderate biomass, and the highest fungi-to-bacteria ratio under less intensive management.
Practical implications/Recommendations
Reducing anthropogenic intervention in the Mediterranean region is vital to alleviating combined environmental stress, thereby allowing the increase of microbial biomass.
Objective(s)
Soil microbial biomass and community structure are key indicators of soil health and fertility, particularly under different pedoclimatic conditions and management systems. In this study, microbial communities were assessed in 150 soil samples from the Continental pedoclimatic region (NW Germany) across five land-use types (Urban, Agricultural, Mining, Semi-natural, and Forest) and three management intensities (High, Medium, and Low). The Phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis was used to estimate microbial biomass and the relative abundance of major microbial groups, such as fungi and bacteria.
Results
Microbial biomass dynamics in the continental region exhibited a unique pattern. Total microbial biomass in agricultural and forest soils decreased when management intensity was reduced. However, this decline in the total number of microorganisms is accompanied by a drastic structural change: a high increase in the fungus-to-bacteria ratio. Semi-natural areas retained the highest biomass and, under low intensity management, also strongly maximized their fungal component. Mining soils maintained very low levels, with slight recoveries and fungal dominance as pressure was reduced.
Practical implications/Recommendations
Reducing management intensity promoted a shift towards more fungal-dominated microbial communities, despite decreases in total microbial biomass. This structural change may enhance soil stability and ecosystem resilience, particularly in semi-natural systems.
Objective(s)
Soil microbial biomass and community structure are key indicators of soil health and fertility, particularly under different pedoclimatic conditions and management systems. In this study, microbial communities were assessed in 150 soil samples from the Continental pedoclimatic region (NW Germany) across five land-use types (Urban, Agricultural, Mining, Semi-natural, and Forest) and three management intensities (High, Medium, and Low). The Phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis was used to estimate microbial biomass and the relative abundance of major microbial groups, such as fungi and bacteria.
Results
Microbial biomass dynamics in the continental region exhibited a unique pattern. Total microbial biomass in agricultural and forest soils decreased when management intensity was reduced. However, this decline in the total number of microorganisms is accompanied by a drastic structural change: a high increase in the fungus-to-bacteria ratio. Semi-natural areas retained the highest biomass and, under low intensity management, also strongly maximized their fungal component. Mining soils maintained very low levels, with slight recoveries and fungal dominance as pressure was reduced.
Practical implications/Recommendations
Reducing management intensity promoted a shift towards more fungal-dominated microbial communities, despite decreases in total microbial biomass. This structural change may enhance soil stability and ecosystem resilience, particularly in semi-natural systems.
Objective(s)
Boreal ecosystems are notable for storing exceptionally high levels of microbial biomass, driven by the accumulation of organic matter characteristic of this pedoclimatic region. In this regard, we analyzed microbial biomass using Phospholipid Fatty Acid (PLFA) analysis and the fungal-to-bacteria ratio in 150 soil samples from different management intensities (high, intermediate, and low) across five land uses (forest, wetland, agricultural, mining, and semi-natural).
Results
Wetlands and agricultural soils exhibited significative growth in soil microbial biomass under reduced management pressure: wetlands nearly quadruple their total biomass, while less intensive agriculture also significantly increased it, accompanied by a significant increase in the soil fungi-to-bacteria ratio. Forests maintained very high microbial biomass, especially at intermediate intensities, with a higher fungal ratio in low-intensity areas. On the other hand, semi-natural and mining areas showed biomass peaks under intermediate management.
Practical implications/Recommendations
Reducing management intensity unlocks the potential of wetlands and croplands to act as living carbon sinks, supported by abundant microbial communities.
Objective(s)
Boreal ecosystems are notable for storing exceptionally high levels of microbial biomass, driven by the accumulation of organic matter characteristic of this pedoclimatic region. In this regard, we analyzed microbial biomass using Phospholipid Fatty Acid (PLFA) analysis and the fungal-to-bacteria ratio in 150 soil samples from different management intensities (high, intermediate, and low) across five land uses (forest, wetland, agricultural, mining, and semi-natural).
Results
Wetlands and agricultural soils exhibited significative growth in soil microbial biomass under reduced management pressure: wetlands nearly quadruple their total biomass, while less intensive agriculture also significantly increased it, accompanied by a significant increase in the soil fungi-to-bacteria ratio. Forests maintained very high microbial biomass, especially at intermediate intensities, with a higher fungal ratio in low-intensity areas. On the other hand, semi-natural and mining areas showed biomass peaks under intermediate management.
Practical implications/Recommendations
Reducing management intensity unlocks the potential of wetlands and croplands to act as living carbon sinks, supported by abundant microbial communities.
Objective(s)
Soil microbial biomass and community structure are key indicators of soil health and fertility, particularly under different pedoclimatic conditions and management systems. In this study, microbial communities were assessed in 170 soil samples from the Atlantic pedoclimatic region (Galicia, NW Spain) across five land-use types (Urban, Agricultural, Mining, Semi-natural, and Wetland) and three management intensities (High, Medium, and Low). The Phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis was used to estimate microbial biomass and the relative abundance of major microbial groups, such as fungi and bacteria.
Result(s)
Total microbial biomass generally increased with decreasing land-use intensity, particularly in agricultural and mining soils. Agricultural soils showed a progressive increase from the most intensive to the least intensive management, suggesting a recovery of soil microbial biomass under reduced disturbance. Similar trends were observed in wetlands, where management seemed to play a key role. In contrast, semi-natural and urban soils showed more variable responses, indicating that local conditions may influence microbial dynamics. Mining areas showed a significant increase in total microbial biomass from high to low activity. The fungal-to-bacterial ratio also tended to increase under lower intensity management in agricultural and mining soils, reflecting a shift towards more stable and functionally diverse microbial communities.
Practical implications/Recommendations
Reducing land-use intensity can promote soil microbial abundance in Atlantic environments.
Objective(s)
Soil microbial biomass and community structure are key indicators of soil health and fertility, particularly under different pedoclimatic conditions and management systems. In this study, microbial communities were assessed in 170 soil samples from the Atlantic pedoclimatic region (Galicia, NW Spain) across five land-use types (Urban, Agricultural, Mining, Semi-natural, and Wetland) and three management intensities (High, Medium, and Low). The Phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis was used to estimate microbial biomass and the relative abundance of major microbial groups, such as fungi and bacteria.
Result(s)
Total microbial biomass generally increased with decreasing land-use intensity, particularly in agricultural and mining soils. Agricultural soils showed a progressive increase from the most intensive to the least intensive management, suggesting a recovery of soil microbial biomass under reduced disturbance. Similar trends were observed in wetlands, where management seemed to play a key role. In contrast, semi-natural and urban soils showed more variable responses, indicating that local conditions may influence microbial dynamics. Mining areas showed a significant increase in total microbial biomass from high to low activity. The fungal-to-bacterial ratio also tended to increase under lower intensity management in agricultural and mining soils, reflecting a shift towards more stable and functionally diverse microbial communities.
Practical implications/Recommendations
Reducing land-use intensity can promote soil microbial abundance in Atlantic environments.
Objective(s)
Soil microbial biomass and community structure are key indicators of soil health and fertility, particularly under different pedoclimatic conditions and management systems. In this study, microbial communities were assessed in 150 soil samples from Alpine soils in Switzerland across five land-use types (Forest, Agricultural, Industrial, Semi-natural, and Wetland) and three management intensities (High, Medium, and Low). Phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis was used to estimate microbial biomass and the relative abundance of major microbial groups, such as fungi and bacteria.
Result(s)
Total microbial biomass varied considerably among land uses, with wetland soils showing the highest microbial abundance, followed by forest soils, while agricultural soils exhibited the lowest values. In general, total microbial biomass increased under lower land-use intensity, suggesting that reduced management pressure promotes microbial development and soil biological activity. The fungal-to-bacterial ratio, an indicator of microbial community balance and soil functioning, remained relatively stable across land uses (~0.2–0.3). Industrial soils showed slightly higher values and greater variability, particularly under lower management intensity, whereas wetlands displayed the opposite trend. Overall, the fungal-to-bacterial ratio tended to increase in less-intensive systems, indicating a greater contribution of fungal communities under more stable soil conditions.
Practical implications/Recommendations
Decreases in management intensity can help preserve microbial biomass in Alpine ecosystems, which are especially sensitive to environmental disturbance and climate change.
Objective(s)
Soil microbial biomass and community structure are key indicators of soil health and fertility, particularly under different pedoclimatic conditions and management systems. In this study, microbial communities were assessed in 150 soil samples from Alpine soils in Switzerland across five land-use types (Forest, Agricultural, Industrial, Semi-natural, and Wetland) and three management intensities (High, Medium, and Low). Phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis was used to estimate microbial biomass and the relative abundance of major microbial groups, such as fungi and bacteria.
Result(s)
Total microbial biomass varied considerably among land uses, with wetland soils showing the highest microbial abundance, followed by forest soils, while agricultural soils exhibited the lowest values. In general, total microbial biomass increased under lower land-use intensity, suggesting that reduced management pressure promotes microbial development and soil biological activity. The fungal-to-bacterial ratio, an indicator of microbial community balance and soil functioning, remained relatively stable across land uses (~0.2–0.3). Industrial soils showed slightly higher values and greater variability, particularly under lower management intensity, whereas wetlands displayed the opposite trend. Overall, the fungal-to-bacterial ratio tended to increase in less-intensive systems, indicating a greater contribution of fungal communities under more stable soil conditions.
Practical implications/Recommendations
Decreases in management intensity can help preserve microbial biomass in Alpine ecosystems, which are especially sensitive to environmental disturbance and climate change.
Objective(s)
Soil microbial biomass and community structure are key indicators of soil health and fertility, particularly under different pedoclimatic conditions and management systems. The microbial biomass and communities were assessed in 770 soil samples from five European pedoclimatic regions (Alpine, Atlantic, Continental, Mediterranean and Boreal) across five land-use types (Urban, Agricultural, Mining, Semi-natural, Wetland, Industrial and Forest) and three management intensities (High, Medium, and Low). The Phospholipid fatty acid (PLFAs) analysis was used to estimate microbial biomass and the relative abundance of major microbial groups, such as fungi and bacteria.
Results
Land use and management intensity determined soil microbial biomass. Although regional climate determined the total microbial biomass, with maximums in boreal and alpine wetlands and minimums in Mediterranean drylands, reducing anthropogenic pressure toward low-intensity management yielded a universal benefit. This reduction in disturbance catalyzed the recovery of microbial abundance, with highly notable impacts on degraded agricultural and mining soils. The most consistent pattern was the increase in the fungus-to-bacteria ratio under less intensive practices.
Practical implications/Recommendations
A potential transition to low-intense agricultural and forestry practices should be promoted at the European level. Flexibility is key: while in the north and at higher elevations the role of wetlands and forests as carbon sinks must be protected, in the south it is vital to promote practices that mitigate water stress and support fungal recolonization.
Objective(s)
Soil microbial biomass and community structure are key indicators of soil health and fertility, particularly under different pedoclimatic conditions and management systems. The microbial biomass and communities were assessed in 770 soil samples from five European pedoclimatic regions (Alpine, Atlantic, Continental, Mediterranean and Boreal) across five land-use types (Urban, Agricultural, Mining, Semi-natural, Wetland, Industrial and Forest) and three management intensities (High, Medium, and Low). The Phospholipid fatty acid (PLFAs) analysis was used to estimate microbial biomass and the relative abundance of major microbial groups, such as fungi and bacteria.
Results
Land use and management intensity determined soil microbial biomass. Although regional climate determined the total microbial biomass, with maximums in boreal and alpine wetlands and minimums in Mediterranean drylands, reducing anthropogenic pressure toward low-intensity management yielded a universal benefit. This reduction in disturbance catalyzed the recovery of microbial abundance, with highly notable impacts on degraded agricultural and mining soils. The most consistent pattern was the increase in the fungus-to-bacteria ratio under less intensive practices.
Practical implications/Recommendations
A potential transition to low-intense agricultural and forestry practices should be promoted at the European level. Flexibility is key: while in the north and at higher elevations the role of wetlands and forests as carbon sinks must be protected, in the south it is vital to promote practices that mitigate water stress and support fungal recolonization.
There is an urgent need to develop soil heath indicators for soil monitoring programmes at different spatial and temporal scales. BIOservicES has developed, under a participatory approach, a toolkit with 105 soil health indicators to help land managers select the most suitable soil health indicators in terms of their specific objectives.
The toolkit of soil health indicator is available on https://bioservices-project.eu/resources/. Soil health indicators are related on different ecosystem services in case not only soil health wants to be measured and monitored, but also to control de delivery of some ecosystem services from soil. These indicators go beyond those initially proposed by the European Mission Soil and the EU Soil Monitoring Law (pan-European scale) to assess soil health and the delivery of ecosystem services at local and regional scales. These indicators are associated with standardized methods to measure them, agreed among experts from international initiatives and projects.
The project also designed a soil sampling procedure, pre-treatment, and shipment of soil samples to efficiently collect soils to assess the proposed soil health indicators. Soil sampling is tailored for different types of indicators, to measure soil structure, physico-chemical properties, microbial diversity and composition, and micro-, meso- and megafauna composition, biomass and functionality, offering region-specific insights that practitioners can use to adapt solutions to local conditions.
Practically, the toolkit of soil health indicators and the soil sampling scheme can help farmers, foresters, and land managers monitor soil health, assess the delivery of ecosystem services from soil, and monitor soil biodiversity. For example, the use of the some of the proposed indicators can guide decisions to reduce erosion, enhance soil carbon storage, increase biodiversity, or optimize land use.
There is an urgent need to develop soil heath indicators for soil monitoring programmes at different spatial and temporal scales. BIOservicES has developed, under a participatory approach, a toolkit with 105 soil health indicators to help land managers select the most suitable soil health indicators in terms of their specific objectives.
The toolkit of soil health indicator is available on https://bioservices-project.eu/resources/. Soil health indicators are related on different ecosystem services in case not only soil health wants to be measured and monitored, but also to control de delivery of some ecosystem services from soil. These indicators go beyond those initially proposed by the European Mission Soil and the EU Soil Monitoring Law (pan-European scale) to assess soil health and the delivery of ecosystem services at local and regional scales. These indicators are associated with standardized methods to measure them, agreed among experts from international initiatives and projects.
The project also designed a soil sampling procedure, pre-treatment, and shipment of soil samples to efficiently collect soils to assess the proposed soil health indicators. Soil sampling is tailored for different types of indicators, to measure soil structure, physico-chemical properties, microbial diversity and composition, and micro-, meso- and megafauna composition, biomass and functionality, offering region-specific insights that practitioners can use to adapt solutions to local conditions.
Practically, the toolkit of soil health indicators and the soil sampling scheme can help farmers, foresters, and land managers monitor soil health, assess the delivery of ecosystem services from soil, and monitor soil biodiversity. For example, the use of the some of the proposed indicators can guide decisions to reduce erosion, enhance soil carbon storage, increase biodiversity, or optimize land use.
Soil biodiversity and properties contribute to a range of ecosystem services (ES) that provide important benefits to land managers and wider society. These can include more productive agriculture, better management of water, climate change mitigation, and opportunities for recreation and well-being. BIOservicES aims to identify and value these ES benefits to inform the sustainable management of soils. A framework for market and non-market valuation of ES has been developed to estimate economic values across eight land uses (urban, industrial, agricultural, forestry, mining, (semi)-natural, wetland and dryland), and five biogeographic regions (Alpine, Atlantic, Boreal, Continental, and Mediterranean). This framework can be used to study the synergies and trade-offs in soil management benefits. These might include improved productivity or reduced costs for farmers or foresters. New markets and policy measures could be indicated, including in sectors where soil management has previously been neglected.
Soil biodiversity and properties contribute to a range of ecosystem services (ES) that provide important benefits to land managers and wider society. These can include more productive agriculture, better management of water, climate change mitigation, and opportunities for recreation and well-being. BIOservicES aims to identify and value these ES benefits to inform the sustainable management of soils. A framework for market and non-market valuation of ES has been developed to estimate economic values across eight land uses (urban, industrial, agricultural, forestry, mining, (semi)-natural, wetland and dryland), and five biogeographic regions (Alpine, Atlantic, Boreal, Continental, and Mediterranean). This framework can be used to study the synergies and trade-offs in soil management benefits. These might include improved productivity or reduced costs for farmers or foresters. New markets and policy measures could be indicated, including in sectors where soil management has previously been neglected.
The (over)use of heavy machinery, pesticides, synthetic fertilizers, invasive species, and tree monocultures are causing increased soil biodiversity loss across agricultural and forest landscapes. BIOservicES mapped existing policies and economic tools for soil biodiversity and identified implementation barriers and enablers through literature and practitioner expertise. Results show that the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is the primary funding mechanism for soil-friendly practices, supporting land managers via eco-schemes and agri-environment-climate measures, indirectly promoting soil biodiversity. Similarly to a complementary results-based approach such as carbon farming, biodiversity credits could allow land managers to earn income for demonstrated improvements in soil biodiversity. While a common EU certification framework for carbon farming is being finalized, the European Commission has just launched a Roadmap towards Nature Credits to support nature-positive actions, including soil biodiversity improvements. In contrast to the CAP, the EU Soil Monitoring Law makes soil biodiversity protection a primary objective through a harmonised definition of soil health, EU-level targets, and national benchmarks.It addresses CAP weaknesses through clearer eco-scheme definitions, limited binding commitments, and a harmonised monitoring framework for soil health.
Linking CAP payments to soil health improvements can complement rewarding the adoption of certain practices. Additionally, combining mandatory standards and targeted subsidies can improve CAP implementation consistency. However, these changes require stronger monitoring capacities and common soil health indicators to design effective results-based payment schemes. Finally, advisory services and awareness-raising programmes should accompany all regulatory reforms to address lack of awareness and knowledge as the most common barrier to uptake.
The (over)use of heavy machinery, pesticides, synthetic fertilizers, invasive species, and tree monocultures are causing increased soil biodiversity loss across agricultural and forest landscapes. BIOservicES mapped existing policies and economic tools for soil biodiversity and identified implementation barriers and enablers through literature and practitioner expertise. Results show that the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is the primary funding mechanism for soil-friendly practices, supporting land managers via eco-schemes and agri-environment-climate measures, indirectly promoting soil biodiversity. Similarly to a complementary results-based approach such as carbon farming, biodiversity credits could allow land managers to earn income for demonstrated improvements in soil biodiversity. While a common EU certification framework for carbon farming is being finalized, the European Commission has just launched a Roadmap towards Nature Credits to support nature-positive actions, including soil biodiversity improvements. In contrast to the CAP, the EU Soil Monitoring Law makes soil biodiversity protection a primary objective through a harmonised definition of soil health, EU-level targets, and national benchmarks.It addresses CAP weaknesses through clearer eco-scheme definitions, limited binding commitments, and a harmonised monitoring framework for soil health.
Linking CAP payments to soil health improvements can complement rewarding the adoption of certain practices. Additionally, combining mandatory standards and targeted subsidies can improve CAP implementation consistency. However, these changes require stronger monitoring capacities and common soil health indicators to design effective results-based payment schemes. Finally, advisory services and awareness-raising programmes should accompany all regulatory reforms to address lack of awareness and knowledge as the most common barrier to uptake.
Contacts
Project email
Project coordinator
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Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena
Project coordinator
bioservices@upct.es Website Educational or continued professional development organisation (including vocational trainers)
Project partners
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Universidade de Vigo
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Website Educational or continued professional development organisation (including vocational trainers) -
LGI Consulting
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Eigen Vermogen Van Het Instituut Voor Landbouw En Visserijonderzoek
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Johann Heinrich von Thuenen-Institut, Bundesforschungsinstitut fuer Laendliche Raeume, Wald und Fischerei
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Consiglio per la Ricerca in Agricoltura e l’Analisi dell’Economia Agraria
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Zabala Innovation
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Centro Euro-Mediterraneo sui Cambiamenti Climatici
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Agencia Estatal Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas
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Technical University of München
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Research Institute of Organic Agriculture
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Wageningen University
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Latvian State Forest Research Institute
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Scotland's Rural College
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Università degli Studi della Tuscia
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University of Portsmouth
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JUNE Communications S.R.L
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Soluciones Agrícolas Cultivate S.L
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Fundación Juana de la Vega
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Flächenagentur Rheinland GmbH
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Amt für Natur und Umwelt Graubünden
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SIA Rīgas meži
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Northern Arizona University
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Educational or continued professional development organisation (including vocational trainers)